Expedited Citizenship Through Military Service: Current Law, Policy and Issues

Expedited Citizenship
Through Military Service:
Current Law, Policy, and Issues
Updated July 1, 2008
Margaret Mikyung Lee
Legislative Attorney
American Law Division
Ruth Ellen Wasem
Specialist in Immigration Policy
Domestic Social Policy Division



Expedited Citizenship Through Military Service:
Current Law, Policy, and Issues
Summary
Since the beginning of Operation Iraqi Freedom in March 2003 there has been
considerable interest in legislation to expand the citizenship benefits of aliens serving
in the military. The reported deaths in action of noncitizen soldiers drew attention
to provisions of the immigration laws that grant posthumous citizenship to those who
die as a result of active-duty service during a period of hostilities and to the
advantages of further expediting naturalization for noncitizens serving in the United
States military. In the wake of September 11, 2001, and the war against terrorism,
President George W. Bush officially designated the period beginning on September
11, 2001, as a “period of hostilities,” which triggered immediate naturalization
eligibility for active-duty U.S. military service members. At the time of the
designation (July 3, 2002), the Department of Defense and the former Immigration
and Naturalization Service announced that they would work together to ensure that
military naturalization applications were processed expeditiously.
Title XVII of P.L. 108-136, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal
Year 2004 (November 24, 2003), entitled “Naturalization and Other Immigration
Benefits for Military Personnel and Families,” amended existing military
naturalization statutes by reducing the period of service required for naturalization
based on peacetime service from three years to one year; waiving fees for
naturalization based on military service during peacetime or wartime; permitting
naturalization processing overseas in U.S. embassies, consulates, and military bases;
providing for priority consideration for military leave and transport to finalize
naturalization; and by extending naturalization based on wartime service to members
of the Selected Reserve of the Ready Reserve. The Secretary of Defense or the
Secretary’s designee within the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services was
authorized to request posthumous citizenship upon obtaining permission from the
next-of-kin. The law also expanded immigration benefits available to the immediate
relatives (spouses, children, and parents) of citizens, including posthumous citizens,
who die from injuries or illnesses resulting from or aggravated by serving in combat.
The effective date was retroactive to September 11, 2001, except for the fee waivers
and provision for naturalization proceedings abroad, which took effect on October

1, 2004.


Efforts since P.L. 108-136 have focused on further streamlining procedures or
extending immigration benefits to immediate relatives of U.S. service members.
Most recently, P.L. 110-251, the Kendell Frederick Citizenship Assistance Act (June

26, 2008), streamlines background checks, particularly regarding biometric data.


Sections 673 and 674 of P.L. 110-181, the National Defense Authorization Act for
Fiscal Year 2008 (January 28, 2008), respectively ensured reentry into the United
States by lawful permanent residents (LPRs) who are spouses and children
accompanying a military service member abroad (whose presence abroad might
otherwise be deemed as abandonment of LPR status) and also provided for overseas
naturalization for such LPRs. Other notable bills include H.R. 1645, H.R. 1745, H.R.
6020, S. 1348, S. 1639, and S. 2840. This report will be updated as legislative
activity occurs or other events warrant.



Contents
Latest Legislative Developments......................................1
Background ......................................................1
Brief Overview of Naturalization.................................2
Executive Order 13269.........................................3
Historical Background..........................................4
Noncitizens in the Military......................................7
Current Law......................................................9
Naturalization Through Service During Peacetime....................9
Naturalization Through Active-Duty Service During Hostilities........10
Posthumous Naturalization Through Active Duty Service.............12
Immigration Benefits for the Family of Military Personnel.............13
Other Relevant Laws and Issues.................................14
Naturalization Restrictions.................................14
Restrictions on Alienage in the Armed Forces..................15
Expedited Naturalization for Extraordinary Contributions
to National Security...................................17
Special Immigrant........................................18
Legislative Issues.................................................18
Legislative History............................................18
P.L. 108-136.............................................18
Subsequent Legislation in the 108th Congress...................20th
Legislation in the 109 Congress.............................20
Legislation in the 110th Congress.............................21
Current Issues................................................25
Waiver or DOD adjudication of Naturalization Requirements......25
Providing Immigration Benefits for Immediate Relatives..........26
Prosecutorial Discretion in Removal of U.S. Service Members.....27
Appendix A. Active Duty and Selected Reserve Noncitizen Accession
Locations, by State, as of January 2006............................28
Appendix B. Active Duty Citizenship Status, by Country of Birth:
Top 50 Countries.............................................30
Appendix C. Reserve Citizenship Status, by Country of Birth:
Top 50 Countries.............................................32
List of Figures
Figure 1. Naturalization Petitions Approved FY1990-FY2006..............3
Figure 2. Noncitizens in the U.S. Military by Service Area: 2003 and 2007....7
Figure 3. Top Ten Countries of Countries of Citizenship for Noncitizens
in the U.S. Armed Forces........................................8
Figure 4. Top Ten States of Noncitizens in the U.S. Armed Forces, 2006......9



Expedited Citizenship
Through Military Service:
Current Law, Policy, and Issues
Latest Legislative Developments
P.L. 110-251, the Kendell Frederick Citizenship Assistance Act, enacted on
June 26, 2008, provides for expedited background checks and naturalization
adjudication, particularly with regard to the use of fingerprints and other biometric
data. S. 2840, the Military Personnel Citizenship Processing Act, was marked up and
ordered to be reported on May 8, 2008, by the Senate Committee on the Judiciary.
The Immigration Needs of America’s Fighting Men and Women was the subject of
a hearing held on May 20, 2008, by the House Subcommittee on Immigration,
Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, and is the focus of
H.R. 6020, a bill to further facilitate and expand immigration benefits for military
service members and their families. Earlier, §§673 and 674 of P.L. 110-181, the
National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 (January 28, 2008),
respectively ensured reentry into the United States by lawful permanent residents
(LPRs) who are spouses or children accompanying a military service member abroad
— whose presence abroad might otherwise be deemed as abandonment of LPR status
— and also provided for overseas naturalization for such LPRs.
Background
Since the beginning of Operation Iraqi Freedom in March 2003 there has been
considerable interest in legislation to expand the citizenship benefits of aliens serving
in the military. The reported deaths in action of noncitizen soldiers drew attention
to provisions of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) that grant posthumous
citizenship to those who die as a result of active-duty service during a period of
hostilities and to the advantages of further expediting naturalization for noncitizens
serving in the United States military, beyond the former special naturalization rules
for aliens with service in the U.S. military. Title XVII of P.L. 108-136, the National
Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004 (November 24, 2003), entitled
“Naturalization and Other Immigration Benefits for Military Personnel and
Families,” amended military naturalization and posthumous citizenship statutes and
provided immigration benefits for immediate relatives (spouses, children, and parents
of citizens)1 of U.S. citizen service members who die as a result of actual combat.


1 “Immediate relatives” are defined at INA §201(b)(2)(A)(i), codified at 8 U.S.C.
§1151(b)(2)(A)(i), as including spouses; children; and parents of a citizen who is at least 21
(continued...)

Between September 11, 2001, and May 16, 2008, 39,085 service members were
naturalized; 5,275 service members were naturalized in ceremonies held abroad; and
posthumous citizenship was granted to 115 service members.2 Currently, there are
4,255 pending military naturalization applications; almost 60% of military
naturalization cases are completed within 120 days.3 This report gives an overview
of the history of naturalization based on military service, discusses current law and
policy, analyzes data on noncitizens in the military today and prior to the enactment
of P.L. 108-136, and discusses current legislative proposals and related issues.
Brief Overview of Naturalization
Title 3, Chapter 2 of the INA provides that all LPRs may potentially become
citizens through a process known as naturalization. To naturalize, aliens must have
continuously resided in the United States for five years as LPRs (3 years in the case
of spouses of U.S. citizens and members of the armed services); show that they have
good moral character; demonstrate the ability to read, write, speak, and understand
English; and pass an examination on the government and history of the United
States.4 Applicants pay fees totaling $675 when they file their materials and have the
option of taking a standardized civics (i.e., government and history of the United
States) test or of having the examiner quiz them on civics as part of their interview.
Naturalization duties are now handled by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
(USCIS) in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).5
The INA also provides for expedited naturalization for noncitizens serving in
the U.S. military.6 During peacetime, noncitizens serving honorably in the military
may petition to naturalize after a period(s) of military service aggregating one year
rather than the requisite five years of lawful permanent residence. During periods of
military hostilities designated by executive order, noncitizens serving honorably in
the armed forces can naturalize immediately. Certain requirements for naturalization
are waived for those who are serving in the U.S. military, notably the requirement to
reside continuously in the United States. The INA also provides that noncitizens who
die during active duty may become citizens posthumously, and also provides that


1 (...continued)
years old. A “child” is defined at INA §101(b), codified at 8 U.S.C. §1101(b), as an
unmarried person under twenty-one years of age.
2 USCIS fact sheet, Naturalization Through Military Service (March 16, 2008), available
at [http://www.uscis.gov/files/article/mil_natz_051608.pdf] (last visited July 1, 2008).
3 USCIS Ombudsman, Annual Report 2008 (June 30, 2008), available at
[http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/asse ts/CISOMB_Annual_Report_2008.pdf].
4 The language requirement is waived for those who are at least 50 years old and have lived
in the United States at least 20 years, or who are at least 55 years old and have lived in the
United States at least 15 years. Special consideration on the civics requirement is to be
given to aliens who are over 65 years old and have lived in the United States for at least 20
years. Both the language and civics requirements are waived for those who are unable to
comply due to physical or developmental disabilities or mental impairment.
5 §451(b) of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296).
6 §329 of INA, 8 U.S.C. §1440.

surviving immediate family members may derive nationality benefits from the
granting of posthumous citizenship.7
Figure 1. Naturalization Petitions Approved FY1990-FY2006


1,200,000 20, 000
18, 000
1,000,000 16, 000
800,000 14, 000 ions
s 12, 000 etit
600,000tition10,000y P
e 8, 000 ar
400,000All P6,000Milit
200,000 4, 000
2, 000
- -
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Total PetitionsMilitary
Source: CRS presentation of USCIS data.
The total number of approved naturalization (N-400) petitions rose in the mid-

1990s, dropped in FY1997, and rose again in FY1999 (Figure 1).8 Since FY2003,


total naturalization approvals have been rising. Interestingly, USCIS reported that
more petitions were approved (604,280) than were filed (602,972) in FY2005, due
in part to backlog reduction efforts.9
The trend line of approved naturalization petitions among the military differs
from the overall trends, as Figure 1 illustrates. Military naturalizations, as one might
predict, coincide with the Persian Gulf Conflict in the early 1990s and the current war
on terror, which are discussed more fully below in this report.
Executive Order 13269
On July 3, 2002, President George W. Bush officially designated the period
beginning on September 11, 2001, as a “period of hostilities,” which triggered
7 §329A of INA, 8 U.S.C. §1440-1.
8 DHS statistics are from Table 20, Office of Immigration Statistics, the 2006 Yearbook of
Immigration Statistics. Mari-Jana Oboroceanu, Information Research Specialist, Knowledge
Services Group in the Congressional Research Service, obtained the DOD statistics;
LaTanya Andrews and Jamie L. Hutchinson produced the graphics in this report.
9 The total number of naturalization petitions approved tracks the overall trend in citizenship
applications. For a variety of reasons, the number of immigrants petitioning to naturalize
surged in the mid-1990s, jumping from just over half a million applicants in FY1994 to
more than 1 million in FY1995. There were an unprecedented 1.6 million petitions in
FY1997, but the number had declined to 460,916 petitions in FY2000. The number of N-400
petitions filed has been edging upward in the mid-2000s.

immediate naturalization eligibility for active-duty U.S. military service members.10
The justification offered for this order is the war against terrorism conducted through
Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Noble Eagle in response to the
September 11, 2001, terrorist attack. At the time of the designation, the Department
of Defense (DOD) and the former Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)
announced that they would work together to ensure that military naturalization
applications would be processed expeditiously.
Historical Background
Special naturalization provisions for aliens serving in the U.S. military date back
at least to the Civil War11 and special enactments were made during major conflicts
since that time, up to and including the Vietnam War. The specific conditions for
naturalization under the various statutes that were enacted before the INA vary.12 For
example, the original Civil War statute affected only persons serving in the armies
of the United States and did not include the Navy or Marine Corps, which were
included in 1894.13
Among other standards under various statutes, the Civil War statute required
residency of one year. Later statutes governing naturalization through service in the
Navy or Marine Corps required service of 5 consecutive years in the Navy (the length
of one tour of duty in the Navy at that time) or service for one tour of duty in the
Marine Corps. Subsequent statutes have similar requirements with variations in the
length of service required and the degree to which residency is waived.
The early statutes required the alien to be 21 years old and waived the now-
obsolete requirement to declare one’s intent to become a citizen a certain period of
time prior to filing a naturalization application. The requirement of an honorable
discharge dates from the Civil War statute. Statutes during World War I and the
Korean War permitted naturalization proceedings to take place abroad.14 The World
War I statute15 for the first time waived the fee during wartime; permitted
reenlistment only upon the condition that the alien was in the process of becoming
a citizen (i.e., had filed a declaration of intent to naturalize); and required that a
naturalization application based on peacetime service have been filed while in regular
service after reenlistment or within six months of honorable discharge or separation
from such service (which is currently the deadline for filing) or while in reserve
service after regular service. Thus, at least one term of enlistment had to have been


10 Executive Order 13269, Federal Register, v. 67, no. 130, July 8, 2002.
11 Act of July 17, 1862, ch. 200, §21, 12 Stat. 594, 597.
12 For a discussion of the legislative history of the various military naturalization statutes,
see Darlene C. Goring, In Service to America: Naturalization of Undocumented Alien
Veterans, 31 Seton Hall L. Rev. 400, 408-430 (2000).
13 Act of July 26, 1894, ch. 165, 28 Stat. 124.
14 Act of May 9, 1918, 40 Stat. 542, and R.S. 1750, cross-referenced in that act; Act of June

30, 1953 (P.L. 86), ch. 162, §2, 67 Stat. 108, 109; USCIS Interpretations 329.1(e)(2).


15 Act of May 9, 1918, ch. 69, 40 Stat. 542.

completed before an alien could file for naturalization during peacetime. For
Filipinos, that statute required three years of service for naturalization based on
peacetime service (which is the currently required period).
Until the Vietnam War, special provisions for wartime service were generally
enacted during a particular war and only covered service during that war, not for
either past or prospective periods of conflict. Although §329 of the INA as enacted
in 1952 included World Wars I and II, it made no provision for future periods. As
a consequence, Congress enacted laws to include the Korean War and the Vietnam
War. In 1968, Congress amended §329 of the INA to provide that the President is
to designate by executive order such periods when the armed forces of the United
States are engaged in armed conflict with a hostile foreign force.
Not every deployment of U.S. forces to an area where armed conflict occurred
has been designated as a period of hostilities. Since the executive order designating
the termination of the Vietnam War for naturalization purposes, only two additional
periods of hostilities have been designated for such purposes. President Clinton
designated the Persian Gulf Conflict as a period of hostilities, and in 2002 President
Bush designated the War on Terrorism beginning on September 11, 2001, as a period
of hostilities.16 Although President Reagan designated the Grenada campaign as a
period of hostilities, a federal court invalidated it entirely because, in contravention
of statutory guidelines for such designations, the executive order attempted to limit
the expedited naturalization benefit to persons who served in certain geographic areas
and the record showed that the President would not have designated the campaign as
a period of hostilities without the geographic limitations.17 As a result of the
decision, President Clinton revoked the earlier Grenada designation.18
Military actions in Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Haiti, and Panama have not been
designated as a period of hostilities, although U.S. forces faced hostile conditions.
Special issues arose with regard to Filipinos who fought the Japanese in the
Philippines (then a U.S. territory) during World War II. Many of these veterans
served in irregular units or in the Philippine Army, had never had LPR status
although they were U.S. nationals until Philippine independence in 1946,19 and/or


16 Executive Order 12939, Federal Register, v. 59, no. 228, November 22, 1994; and
Executive Order 13269, Federal Register, v. 67, no. 130, July 8, 2002.
17 Executive Order 12582, Federal Register, v. 52, no. 23, February 2, 1987; Matter of
Reyes, 910 F. 2d 611 (9th Cir. 1990).
18 Executive Order 12913, 59 Federal Register, no. 89, p. 23115 (May 4, 1994).
19 At the time the United States acquired the Philippines, Philippine natives were given the
option of affirming allegiance to the Spanish empire and remaining Spanish nationals, or
becoming U.S. nationals by default. However, Filipinos were never collectively granted
U.S. citizenship. Pursuant to a U.S. statute accepted by the Philippine legislature in 1934,
a 10-year transition period was to culminate in Philippine independence and the termination
of U.S. nationality for Philippine citizens who had not acquired U.S. citizenship. During
that period, Filipinos were considered U.S. nationals owing allegiance to the United States,
yet the Philippines were considered a foreign country for immigration purposes with an
(continued...)

failed, because of bureaucratic policies of the time, to comply with certain filing
deadlines. After extended litigation and debate, Congress amended §329 in 1990 to
address Filipino veterans of World War II.20 Such veterans were exempted from the
requirement of having been admitted to lawful permanent residence to the United
States or having enlisted or reenlisted in the United States. Subsequent amendments
enabled naturalization processing to be conducted in the Philippines. However, such
special considerations only applied to applications filed by February 2, 1995.
Special consideration was also extended to members of Hmong guerilla units
that aided the U.S. military during the Vietnam War era. The Hmong Veterans’
Naturalization Act of 200021 provided an exemption from the English language
requirement and special consideration for civics testing for Laotian refugees who
supported the U.S. Armed Forces as members of guerrilla or irregular forces in Laos
during the Vietnam War period of hostilities. These special provisions also cover
widows and spouses of such guerrilla veterans who were also admitted as Laotian
refugees. The spouses of living veterans have to have been married to the veteran at
the time such veteran sought admission into the United States as a refugee. The
number of beneficiaries under this statute was limited to 45,000. The special
provisions only applied to naturalization applications filed by a veteran or spouse
within three years after May 26, 2000, or by a veteran’s widow within three years
after November 1, 2000.
During the 1950s there was a special statute authorizing naturalization for those
aliens who had enlisted outside the United States and had not been admitted to the
United States as LPRs. Popularly known as the Lodge Act,22 it was originally
enacted in 1950 and was periodically extended during the 1950s, finally expiring on
July 1, 1959. Notwithstanding that service was not during a specified period of
hostilities, the act authorized naturalization under §329 of an alien who enlisted or
reenlisted overseas under the terms of the act; subsequently entered the United States,
American Samoa, Swains Island, or the Canal Zone pursuant to military orders;
completed five years of service; and was honorably discharged. Such an alien was
deemed lawfully admitted for permanent residence for the purposes of naturalization
under §329.
Prior to the current statute concerning posthumous citizenship for persons who
die as a result of active-duty service during periods of hostilities, there was no public
law for posthumous conferral. Posthumous grants of citizenship were accomplished


19 (...continued)
immigration quota of 50. Japanese occupation during World War II disrupted this period
and the Philippines were ultimately granted independence in 1946, whereupon the U.S.
nationality of Philippine citizens who had not otherwise previously acquired U.S. citizenship
was terminated.
20 P.L. 101-649, §405, 104 Stat. 5039 (1990), described as amended as a note to INA §329
(8 U.S.C. §1440).
21 P.L. 106-207, 114 Stat. 316 (2000), codified as amended as a note to INA §312 (8 U.S.C.
§1423).
22 Act of June 30, 1950, 64 Stat. 316.

through private laws for specific individuals. These private laws usually specified
that no immigration benefit accrued to the surviving immediate relatives as a result
of the posthumous grant. Authority to grant posthumous citizenship was added by
the Posthumous Citizenship for Active Duty Service Act of 1989.23
Noncitizens in the Military
Prior to Operation Iraqi Freedom, in February 2003, there were a total of 57,754
foreign nationals serving in the U.S. armed forces. Of these, over 37,000 noncitizens
served among the 1.4 million persons in active duty status in the Army, Navy, Air
Force and Marines, or 2.6% of those in active duty. Almost 12,000 other foreign
nationals were serving in the Selected Reserves, and another 8,000 were serving in
the Inactive National Guard and Individual Ready Reserves. As Figure 2 illustrates,
the Navy had the largest number of foreign nationals (15,845 or 27.8% of all
noncitizens in military), followed by the selected reserves (11,861 or 20.8%) and the
Army (11,523 or 20.2%).
By 2007, there was a shift of foreign nationals in the service areas, as well as
decrease in the total number serving. In terms of the Army, Navy, Air Force and
Marines, the number of foreign nationals had fallen to 21,752 serving in active duty
as of March 2007.24 However, the other service areas had increased to 23,285 foreign
nationals serving in the Reserves, the Inactive National Guard, and Individual Ready
Reserves. As Figure 2 illustrates, the Navy has the largest number of foreign
nationals (36% of all noncitizens in the military), followed by the National Guard
(21%), with the Reserves and the Marines each comprising 15%.
Figure 2. Noncitizens in the U.S. Military
by Service Area: 2003 and 2007


Source: CRS analysis of DOD data.
23 §2(a) of P.L. 101-249, 104 Stat. 94 (1990).
24 These DOD data are approximate since current citizenship status is not reported for every
service member. The data are from the DRS #17612 Active Duty Master Files and Reserve
Duty Master Files.

This shift is likely due to several factors, most notably the number of foreign
nationals who became citizens since 2003 and a deplenished number of foreign
nationals eligible to serve.
Foreign nationals from the Philippines appear to comprise the largest single
country of citizenship for aliens in the armed forces, although the DOD does not have
native country data for about 25,000 foreign nationals in the military and does not
have citizenship data for almost 22,000 foreign nationals in the military.25 Mexico
is the second largest source country, followed by Jamaica, Dominican Republic, and
Haiti. The top ten source countries are rounded out by Colombia, El Salvador,
Trinidad and Tobago, Peru and Guyana, as Figure 3 depicts. These may be
compared with the countries of citizenship for foreign nationals in the armed forces
in 2003. Then, as now, foreign nationals from the Philippines comprised the largest
single country of citizenship for aliens in the armed forces, although the DOD did not
have citizenship data for about 11,000 foreign nationals in the military. Mexico was
the second largest source country, followed by Jamaica, El Salvador, and Haiti. The
top ten source countries were rounded out by Trinidad and Tobago, Colombia, South
Korea and Peru.
Figure 3. Top Ten Countries of Countries of Citizenship
for Noncitizens in the U.S. Armed Forces


Philippines
Mexico2003
Jamaica
Dominican Republic2007
El Salvador
Haiti
Trinidad/Tobago
Colombia
S. Korea
Peru
Guyana
0 1,000 2,000 3,00 0 4,000 5,000 6 ,000
Source: CRS analysis of DOD data as of November 2007.
As one might expect given the distribution of foreign born in the United States,
California leads as the accession location state — 13.90% of all aliens in the military.
New York (7.99%), Florida (5.82%), and Texas (4.37%) follow. As Figure 4
presents, the remainder of the top 10 states are New Jersey, Illinois, Maryland,
25 It is unclear what accounts for this substantial under-reporting of citizenship status; it may
be due in part to foreign nationals in the military who have petitions pending with USCIS
as well as foreign nationals who are part of households with mixed immigrant and
citizenship statuses.

Virginia, Massachusetts and Washington. The state that is the accession location is
not necessarily the state in which the alien has resided for the longest period of time
or where his or her family lives. The accession location state is the place where the
alien’s unit is located. Appendix A lists the number of aliens whose unit is located
in each state.
Figure 4. Top Ten States of Noncitizens
in the U.S. Armed Forces, 2006


5,806California
3,338New York
2,430Florida
1,825Texas
1,250New Jersey
579Illinois
519Maryland
499Virginia
472Mas s achus etts
379Washington
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
Source: CRS analysis of DOD data as of January 2006.
Current Law
There are currently two sections of the INA that provide for expedited
naturalization based on military service, during peace time and during war time (“a
period of hostilities”) and one section that provides for posthumous naturalization
based on military service. Another provision permits the immediate relatives of a
U.S. citizen who died as a result of active-duty service during a period of hostilities
to be naturalized without being subject to any specific required residency or physical
presence in the United States. These provisions are discussed below. A USCIS fact
sheet on military naturalizations (March 16, 2008) is available at [http://www.uscis.
gov/files/article/mil_natz_051608.pdf] (last visited July 1, 2008).
Naturalization Through Service During Peacetime
Section 328 of the INA (8 U.S.C. §1439) provides for expedited naturalization
through military service during peacetime. The current administrative view is that
service does not have to be in active-duty status and may include service in an
inactive reserve unit, including a federally recognized National Guard organization.26
26 USCIS Interpretations §328.1(b)(4)(iii).

Fees for naturalization are waived based on this provision. The following conditions
apply to naturalization under this provision:
!The applicant must have served at least one year (three years before
P.L. 108-136) in aggregate and file the naturalization application
while still in the service or within six months of leaving the service.
!There must be current honorable service or a subsequent honorable
discharge. Naturalization may be revoked if the service member is
discharged under other than honorable conditions before serving
honorably for a five-year period in aggregate (unlike §329, before
P.L. 108-136, this section did not provide for discretionary
revocation in the event of discharge under other than honorable
conditions).
!The usual specified periods of residence or physical presence in the
United States, a state, or immigration district are not required in
order to file an application. No current residence within a particular
state or immigration district is required.
!Other naturalization requirements must be satisfied, including good
moral character, allegiance to the United States and its Constitution,
knowledge of civics and English, etc.
!Lawful admission to permanent residence, as required under the INA
for naturalization, may occur before, during, or after the qualifying
military service; however, current enlistment requirements permit
only a citizen or LPR to enlist.
!The provision of 8 U.S.C. §1429 prohibiting naturalization of a
person subject to a final order of removal is waived.
!Where qualifying military service periods were not continuous, the
requirements for naturalization, including residency, must be proved
for any non-service intervals within five years before the date the
naturalization application was filed.
Naturalization Through Active-Duty Service During Hostilities
Section 329 of the INA (8 U.S.C. §1440) provides for expedited naturalization
through U.S. military service during designated periods of hostilities. The periods
of hostilities designated in the statute or by executive order pursuant to the statute
include World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Persian
Gulf Conflict, and the current War on Terrorism; as noted above, the Grenada
campaign was briefly designated and the designation revoked pursuant to a court
holding of unconstitutionality. Fees for naturalization are waived. The conditions
for eligibility include the following:
!The applicant must have served in active-duty status in the U.S.
Armed Forces or in the Selected Reserve of the Ready Reserves



during a designated period of hostilities. No specified period of
service is required prior to application.
!There must be honorable service and discharge. Naturalization may
be revoked if the service member is discharged under other than
honorable conditions before the person has served honorably for an
aggregate period of five years, but such revocation arguably raises
constitutional issues (before P.L. 108-136, naturalization under this
section could be revoked if the service member was discharged
under other than honorable conditions at any time after
naturalization).
!No specified period of residence in the United States prior to
application is required. No current residence or physical presence
within the United States, a particular state, or immigration district is
required.
!Other naturalization requirements must be satisfied, including good
moral character, allegiance to the United States and its Constitution,
knowledge of civics and English, etc.
!The service member must have either (1) been in the United States
or a U.S. territory or on board a U.S. public vessel at the time of
enlistment, whether or not the enlistee was a LPR, or (2) been
admitted as a LPR after enlistment.
!The provision of 8 U.S.C. §1429 prohibiting naturalization of a
person subject to a final order of removal is waived.
!An applicant may be naturalized regardless of age (i.e., a minor
serving in the military may naturalize of his/her own accord under
this provision).
Section 3 of P.L. 90-633, 82 Stat. 1344 (1968), found at 8 U.S.C. §1440e,
waives the fees for a naturalization application made under §329 of the INA based
on active-duty service during the Vietnam War or subsequently designated periods
of hostilities, but only if such application is made during the period of hostilities.27
This waiver appears to date back to a World War I statute that waived fees during
wartime for applications based on military service during that war. P.L. 108-136
amended INA §329 to prohibit fees for naturalization under that section; however,

8 U.S.C. §1440e was not repealed.


The definition of “active-duty” under this provision is determined by the service
branch of the armed forces in which the noncitizen served, pursuant to the statutory
definition in Title 10 of the U.S. Code, concerning the armed forces.28 According to
this definition, “active-duty” does not include inactive service in a reserve unit or


27 See also INA §344(d), codified as amended at 8 U.S.C. §1455(d).
28 10 U.S.C. §101(d).

inactive or non-federalized active service in a National Guard unit.29 Active-duty
service need not be in a combatant capacity.30 The service branch also determines
whether the service was honorable and whether the applicant was honorably
discharged. The service branch provides a duly authenticated certification of the
relevant particulars of the applicant’s military service.
Posthumous Naturalization Through Active Duty Service
Section 329A of the INA (8 U.S.C. §1440-1) provides for posthumous
naturalization where death resulted from serving while on active-duty during World
War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, or other designated periods
of hostilities. Before this addition to the INA, posthumous citizenship could only be
granted via the enactment of private legislation. As originally enacted, the next-of-
kin or other representative had to file a request for posthumous citizenship within two
years of the date of enactment (March 6, 1990) for past hostilities or of the death of
the noncitizen member of the armed forces for periods of hostilities after the date of
enactment. Many persons who would have requested posthumous citizenship for an
eligible individual did not learn about this provision until after the deadline regarding
persons who died during past hostilities, and legislation was enacted in the 107th
Congress to extend the deadline.31 P.L. 108-136 further expedited the procedures.
The conditions for a posthumous grant include the following:
!The deceased must have served honorably in an active-duty status in
the U.S. military during World War I, World War II, the Korean
War, the Vietnam War, or other designated periods of hostilities
under §329 of the INA.
!Death was a result of injury or disease incurred in or aggravated by
service during a period of hostilities.
!The deceased must have either (1) been in the United States or a
U.S. territory or on board a U.S. public vessel at the time of
enlistment, whether or not the enlistee was a LPR, or (2) been
admitted as a LPR after enlistment.
A request for posthumous citizenship may be filed by the Secretary of Defense
or the Secretary’s designee (after locating the next-of-kin and at their request) or by


29 For more information on the reserve components, see CRS Report RL30802, Reserve
Component Personnel Issues, by Lawrence Kapp.
30 USCIS Interpretations §329.1(c)(4)(iv).
31 P.L. 107-273, §11030, 116 Stat. 1836 (2002).

the next-of-kin or other representative.32 The USCIS/DHS shall approve such a
request if:
!The request was filed by November 24, 2005, or is filed within two
years of the death of the service member, whichever is later.
!The service branch under which the person served certifies that the
person served honorably in an active-duty status during a designated
period of hostilities and died because of such service.
!The USCIS finds that the person either enlisted in the United States
or its territories or on board a U.S. public vessel or was admitted as
a LPR after enlistment.
Documentation of a posthumous grant of citizenship is sent to the next-of-kin
or representative who requested the grant. Essentially, posthumous citizenship is a
symbolic honor accorded noncitizens who gave their lives in defense of the United
States and has no automatic substantive effect per se on the immigration status of
surviving family. However, provisions in P.L. 108-136 extended benefits to the
surviving family members of service members who died as a result of active duty
service during a period of hostilities. There is no fee for a posthumous citizenship
application.
Immigration Benefits for the Family of Military Personnel
Prior to P.L. 108-136, INA §319(d) (8 U.S.C. §1430(d)) provided for the
naturalization of the surviving spouse of a U.S. citizen who died while serving
honorably in an active-duty status in the armed forces of the United States. The
spouse and U.S. citizen service member must have been living in marital union at the
time of the citizen’s death. All the other usual requirements for naturalization
applied except that no prior residency or physical presence in the United States, a
state, or immigration district was required to file a naturalization application.
Section 1703 of P.L. 108-136, Div. A, expanded the scope of the naturalization
benefit to the children and parents of a U.S. citizen who dies during a period of
honorable service in an active duty status in the U.S. Armed Forces and expressly
included service members who died on or after September 11, 2001, and were
granted posthumous citizenship. This provision also extended other benefits to
surviving immediate relatives, codified at notes under 8 U.S.C. §1151. The surviving


32 The “next-of-kin” and “other representative” are both defined in current regulations. The
next-of-kin means the closest surviving blood or legal relative of the decedent in the
following order of succession: 1) the surviving spouse; 2) the surviving child or children
if there is no surviving spouse; 3) the surviving parent(s) if there is no surviving spouse or
child; 4) the surviving siblings if there is no surviving spouse, child, or parent. Other
representative includes the following: 1) the executor or administrator of the decedent’s
estate, including a special administrator appointed for the purpose of requesting posthumous
naturalization; 2) the guardian, conservator or committee of the next-of-kin; 3) a service
organization listed in 38 U.S.C. §3402, chartered by Congress or a State, or recognized by
the Department of Veterans Affairs. 8 C.F.R. §392.1.

spouse, children and parents of a U.S. citizen who served honorably in an active duty
status in the U.S. Armed Forces and died as a result of injury or disease incurred in
or aggravated by combat may self-petition as immediate relatives within two years
of the citizen’s death and adjust status to lawful permanent residency. The parent of
such a citizen may be considered an immediate relative regardless of whether the
citizen had attained 21 years of age. Certain immigration benefits are also available
to the spouses, children, and parents of aliens who served honorably in an active duty
status in the U.S. Armed Forces, died as a result of injury or disease incurred in or
aggravated by combat, and were granted posthumous citizenship. They may continue
to be considered immediate relatives if a family petition was filed by the alien before
his/her death; self-petition for classification as a family-based immigrant within two
years of either the date of the service member’s death or the date on which
posthumous citizenship is granted (exactly which is unclear) if such petition was not
filed before the alien’s death; and adjust status to lawful permanent residency.
Certain grounds of inadmissibility are waived for these purposes.
Other Relevant Laws and Issues
Naturalization Restrictions. Those who have requested exemption from
selective service registration or a draft, or discharge on grounds of alienage or
noncitizenship,33 are generally barred from naturalization.34 Those who have deserted
from the armed forces or evaded the draft are also explicitly barred from
naturalization;35 they may possibly be otherwise barred for failing to satisfy the
requirement of good moral character or for being dishonorably discharged or
disciplined, which would tend to show lack of good moral character.36 The bar is
permanent and even if a draft evader subsequently enlists and serves honorably, he
is barred absent an act of Congress or a grant of amnesty by the President removing


33 Between 1918 and 1971, selective service laws permitted any alien to request exemption
from military service obligation in exchange for permanent ineligibility to naturalize, which
persisted even if the alien subsequently changed his mind and served honorably in the U.S.
armed forces during a period of hostilities. In 1971, the laws were amended to permit only
nonimmigrant aliens to be exempt. Additionally, treaties between the United States and
certain countries exempt each country’s nationals from military service in the other country.
See 8 C.F.R. Part 315; Charles Gordon, et al., Immigration Law and Procedure,
§95.04[2][e] (2007); Captain Samuel Bettwy, Assisting Soldiers in Immigration Matters,

1992 Army Law. 3, 10 (1992).


34 INA §315 (8 U.S.C. §1426). According to USCIS Interpretations 329.1(d), the
administration formerly interpreted this section as barring naturalization even where the
federal government initiated the discharge and the service was otherwise honorable.
However, the USCIS now follows the holding in In re Watson, 502 F. Supp. 145 (D.D.C.

1980), that the disqualification does not apply where the federal government, not the alien,


sought the discharge on alienage grounds for its convenience. In this case, a nonimmigrant
alien was mistakenly permitted to enlist in the National Guard and was eventually
discharged when the error was discovered, despite having served on active-duty during the
Vietnam War period.
35 INA §314 (8 U.S.C. §1425).
36 Bettwy, supra note 33, at 14.

the bar.37 Similarly, a conviction for desertion would have to be vacated or pardoned
in some manner to remove the naturalization bar.38
Restrictions on Alienage in the Armed Forces. Although under federal
statutes and regulations LPRs may enlist in the active and reserve forces of the
military,39 there are certain restrictions with regard to reenlistment and eligibility for
certain ranks and occupations. By statute, only U.S. citizens are eligible for certain
officer commissions.40 Additionally, positions requiring security clearance are
generally restricted to U.S. citizens. The major exception to the citizenship
restrictions concerns citizens of the Federated States of Micronesia or the Republic
of the Marshall Islands, who may serve in the U.S. armed forces pursuant to the
Compacts of Free Association between the United States and those countries, under41
which the United States provides for the defense of those countries; since those
countries do not maintain their own armed forces, their citizens who serve in the U.S.
armed forces in effect are serving in the defense of their own countries.
Certain occupations requiring security clearance such as intelligence operations
and special forces, require U.S. citizenship,42 in some instances, not just of the43
service member, but of immediate family members; dual citizenship is a negative


37 Charles Gordon et al., supra note 33, at §95.04[2][d]; Bettwy, supra note 33, at 10-11.
38 Bettwy, supra note 33, at 11.
39 10 U.S.C. §§504 and 12102; see also DOD Instruction No. 1304.26, E2.2.2.1 & E2.2.2.2
(September 20, 2005) (hereafter cited as DOD Instruction). The statutes concern enlistment
in the Army, Air Force, and Reserve components. Although no statute restricts enlistment
to citizens and LPRs in the Navy and Marine Corps, they usually apply the same citizenship
requirements as the Army and Air Force; see Department of the Navy,
COMNAVCRUITCOMINST 1130.8F, Navy Recruiting Manual-Enlisted, Chapter 2D
(March 11, 2002), and MCO P1100.72C, Military Procurement Manual, Vol. 2, Enlisted
Procurement, §3221 (February 10, 2004).
40 10 U.S.C. §§532, 12201; see also, DOD Instruction at E2.2.2.3. U.S. citizenship is
required to be a commissioned or warrant officer, except for a reserve appointment, for
which a person must have LPR status. National Guard officers must be U.S. citizens under
32 U.S.C. §313. 10 U.S.C. §532(f) authorizes the Secretary of Defense to exempt LPRs and
U.S. noncitizen nationals from this requirement if national security requires, but only for an
original appointment in a grade below the grade of major or lieutenant commander.
41 Section 341 in each of the following: the Compact of Free Association between the
Federated States of Micronesia and the United States, P.L. 108-188, §201(a), 117 Stat. 2784
(48 U.S.C. 1921 note); the Compact of Free Association between the Republic of the
Marshall Islands and the United States, §201(b), 117 Stat. 2823 (48 U.S.C. 1921 note); the
Compact of Free Association between Palau and the United States, P.L. 99-658, §201, 100
Stat. 3678 (48 U.S.C. 1931 note). Also see, Department of the Army, Regular Army and
Army Reserve Enlistment Program/Army Regulation 601-210, §2-4.a(4) (June 7, 2007)
(hereinafter 2007 Army Regulation 601-210).
42 See DOD Directive 5200.2, DOD Personnel Security Program, §§3.4 and 3.6 (April 9,

1999) and generally DOD 5200.2-R, Personnel Security Program Regulation (January 1,


1987), issued under DOD Directive 5200.2.


43 2007 Army Regulation 601-210, §5-56; Department of the Army, Personnel Security
(continued...)

or prohibitive factor.44 Until recently, some service branches restricted the amount
of time that a noncitizen could serve.45
The Air Force restricts noncitizens to one term of enlistment: they cannot
reenlist unless they have become a citizen, but an extension of the original enlistment
is available to an airman who has filed an application for naturalization.46 The
extension may not exceed the earlier of (1) six months or (2) the date of the expected
naturalization ceremony plus 30 days. However, additional extensions may be
granted.
Apparently there are no explicit statutory or regulatory restrictions on
reenlistment in the Navy or the Marine Corps.
Although it is a component of the armed forces,47 the Coast Guard is not
generally under the jurisdiction of the DOD, but rather formerly under the
Department of Transportation and now under DHS, which promulgates the
regulations governing enlistment. As a component of the armed forces, the Coast
Guard is subject to the uniform enlistment statute re citizenship and LPR
restrictions.48 The Coast Guard regulations require U.S. citizenship or LPR status for
enlistment;49 an alien must have become a naturalized citizen to reenlist.50
Nonimmigrants may not enlist. LPRs with any prior military service may not enlist;
this restriction may not be waived. Noncitizens in the Coast Guard are not eligible


43 (...continued)
Program/Army Regulation 380-67, §3-501 (September 9, 1988).
44 32 C.F.R. §§154.7(f), 154.16(f), Part 154, Appendix H, Guideline C; see e.g., 2007 Army
Regulation 601-210, §2-4.e.
45 Formerly, the Army limited a service member to eight years of service in noncitizen
status. If a person reached the eight-year limit by the end of the current term of enlistment,
that person was barred from reenlisting. Department of the Army, formerly at Regular Army
and Army Reserve Enlistment Program/Army Regulation 601-210, §§2-4.a.(5), 3-4.b
(February 28, 1995); rescinded in the June 7, 2007, version. The enlistment term could be
extended for a maximum of 12 months to allow the service member sufficient time to
complete naturalization procedures, but not more than 90 days beyond the expected date of
the naturalization ceremony. Formerly at Department of the Army, Army Regulation 601-
280, Army Retention Program, §4-9.k (March 31, 1999); substance deleted from current
version (June 31, 2006).
46 Secretary of the Air Force, Air Force Instruction 36-2606, Reenlistment in the United
States Air Force, paragraphs 3.12, 4.5.4 (November 21, 2001).
47 10 U.S.C. §101(a)(4).
48 10 U.S.C. §504.
49 U.S. Coast Guard of the DHS, Coast Guard Recruiting Manual (COMDTINST
M1100.2E) §2.B.1.d and Table 2-2 (June 22, 2006). (Hereinafter cited as CG Recruiting
Manual).
50 U.S. Coast Guard of the DHS, Coast Guard Personnel Manual (COMDTINST M1000.6A)
§1.G.5.5 (June 18, 2007). This does not apply to a service member who originally enlisted
from the Philippines.

to be officers.51 Although the current Coast Guard security manual concerning
security clearance apparently does not expressly require U.S. citizenship, it refers to
federal mandated guidelines and to the manual’s explicit compliance with federal
guidelines and provides that in cases of apparent conflict between the manual and
statutes, law enforcement practices, and other regulations, the latter regulations shall
apply and the Commandant should be advised of the apparent conflict for
resolution. 52
Despite the foregoing restrictions, nonimmigrant and even undocumented (i.e.,
“illegal”) aliens have apparently enlisted in the military at times.53
Expedited Naturalization for Extraordinary Contributions to
National Security. Although not enacted to benefit U.S. military service members,
expedited naturalization for extraordinary contributions to national security under 8
U.S.C. §1427(f) may have relevance in the context of aliens who provide valuable
military intelligence during the war on terror. Legislative history indicates that this
provision is primarily intended to benefit those aliens who have provided invaluable
intelligence in the course of a long-term relationship with the United States.54 This
provision permits a maximum of five aliens per year to be naturalized upon a
determination by the Director of National Intelligence/Director of the Central
Intelligence Agency, the Secretary of Homeland Security, and the Director of
USCIS55 that such aliens have made an extraordinary contribution to national security
or intelligence activities. The Director of National Intelligence/Director of the
Central Intelligence Agency must inform the congressional committees on
Intelligence and the Judiciary prior to the filing of an application under this
provision. The usual residence and physical presence requirements are waived, but


51 U.S. Coast Guard of the DHS, Coast Guard Recruiting Manual (COMDTINST
M1100.2E) §4.B.1.f (June 22, 2006).
52 U.S. Coast Guard of the DHS, Personnel Security and Suitability Program (COMDTINST
M5520.12C) preamble §4.c & d (December 17, 2007).
53 E.g., see In re Watson, 502 F. Supp. 145 (D.D.C. 1980), supra note 34, involving a
nonimmigrant mistakenly permitted to enlist in the National Guard, contrary to enlistment
rules.
54 See H.Rept. 99-373, at 22 (1985) —
The conferees expect that the authority provided by Subsection 316(g) will be
used to reward those aliens who for a significant time have maintained a
relationship with the United States. Only in rare instances should expedited
citizenship be afforded to defectors with no previous relationship with the United
States, and only after careful scrutiny should the promise of expedited citizenship
be offered as an inducement for future services.... The conferees emphasize that
private immigration legislation remains the preferred method for processing
exceptions to [the INA].... the Executive Branch should, in each case, determine
whether a private bill or use of the waiver authority provided for in subsection

316(g) is most appropriate.


55 This statute still refers to the Director of Central Intelligence, the Attorney General, and
the Commissioner of Immigration, although these positions have either been renamed or
have had functions transferred pursuant to statutory amendments.

the alien must be otherwise eligible for naturalization and have continuously resided
in the United States for one year prior to naturalization. The alien must also not have
participated in persecution, serious crimes, or terrorism, or be a danger to the security
of the United States. The naturalization ceremony may take place in any federal
district court regardless of residency and the conduct of naturalization proceedings
must be consistent with the protection of intelligence activities.
Special Immigrant. Section 101(a)(27)(K) of the INA (8 U.S.C.
§1101(a)(27)(K)) defines “special immigrant” as including an immigrant who has
served honorably on active duty in the Armed Forces of the United States after
October 15, 1978, and after original lawful enlistment outside the United States
(under a treaty or agreement in effect on the date of the enactment of this
subparagraph, October 1, 1991) for a period or periods aggregating (1) 12 years and
who, if separated from such service, was never separated except under honorable
conditions, or (2) six years, in the case of an immigrant who is on active duty at the
time of seeking special immigrant status and who has reenlisted to incur a total active
duty service obligation of at least 12 years. This provision also includes the spouse
or child of any such immigrant if accompanying or following to join the immigrant,
but only if the executive department under which the immigrant serves or served
recommends the granting of special immigrant status to the immigrant. Such special
immigrants may be paroled into the United States and adjust status; given the length
of service, even under peace-time military naturalization provisions, service members
who are special immigrants in this category would likely qualify for naturalization.
According to immigration authorities, this provision benefits nationals of the
Philippines, Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, all of which have the type
of agreement to which the statute refers, and apparently primarily benefits Philippine56
nationals in the U.S. Navy.
Legislative Issues
Legislative History
P.L. 108-136. P.L. 108-136, the Defense Department FY2004 Authorization
bill (H.R. 1588), was the culmination of congressional efforts begun in the 107thth
Congress. During the 107 Congress, there was renewed legislative interest in
amending the various naturalization provisions based on military service as a result
of the launching of the War on Terror, the campaign in Afghanistan, and the prospect
of an armed confrontation in Iraq. This interest continued in the 108th Congress and
developed momentum in the wake of Operation Iraqi Freedom.
Of the many bills introduced during the 108th Congress that contained provisions
concerning expedited or posthumous citizenship as the result of military service, H.R.

1588, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004, became P.L.


108-136 on November 24, 2003. Title XVII of H.R. 1588, entitled “Naturalization


56 Charles Gordon et al., supra note 33, at §35.10, State Dept. Authorizes Special Immigrant
Status for Members of Armed Forces, 68 Interpreter Releases 1572 (1991).

and Other Immigration Benefits for Military Personnel and Families,” amended
existing military naturalization statutes by:
!reducing the period of service required for naturalization based on
peacetime service from three years to one year;
!waiving fees for naturalization based on military service during
peacetime or wartime;
!permitting discretionary revocation of naturalization granted on or
after the date of enactment through peacetime or wartime service if
the citizen were discharged from military service under other than
honorable conditions before serving honorably for an aggregate
period of five years;
!permitting naturalization processing overseas in U.S. embassies,
consulates, and military bases;
!providing for priority consideration for military leave and transport
to finalize naturalization;
!extending naturalization based on wartime service to members of the
Selected Reserve of the Ready Reserve.
Additionally, the Secretary of Defense or the Secretary’s designee within the USCIS
is authorized to request posthumous citizenship immediately upon obtaining
permission from the next-of-kin.
The law also expanded immigration benefits available to the immediate relatives
of citizens, including posthumous citizens, who die from injuries or illnesses
resulting from or aggravated by serving in combat. Such relatives may remain
classified as immediate relatives of a U.S. citizen for immigration purposes,
notwithstanding the death of the service member, and can self-petition for immigrant
status. To qualify for such treatment, immediate relatives must self-petition within
two years of the date of the service member’s death or, in the case of posthumous
citizens, within two years of either the date of the service member’s death or the date
on which posthumous citizenship is granted, exactly which is unclear. Certain
adjustment requirements and the public charge grounds for inadmissibility are
waived. Children and parents, as well as spouses, of U.S. citizens who died during
honorable active-duty service are eligible to naturalize without prior residence or a
specified period of physical presence in the United States. This includes survivors
of posthumous citizens who died on or after September 11, 2001.
References to the Attorney General in the relevant sections of the INA Act were
changed to references to the Secretary of Homeland Security. The effective date of
the provisions is retroactive to September 11, 2001, except for the fee waivers and
provision for naturalization proceedings abroad, which took effect on October 1,

2004.



Subsequent Legislation in the 108th Congress. After the enactment of
P.L. 108-136, other bills were introduced that would have further expedited
naturalization based on military service or linked military service to immigration
benefits. H.R. 4873, the Active Duty Naturalization Accommodation Act of 2004,
would have provided additional flexibility in the naturalization process to enable
applicants in active-duty status abroad to satisfy the procedural requirements. Any
requirement or deadline for naturalization would have been suspended for a service
member stationed abroad in active duty service, until the service member had had at
least 30 days after his or her return to the United States to comply with the
requirement or deadline. This relief could have been waived by the service member.
Similar relief would have been retroactive for those service members who were
stationed abroad in active duty service between September 11, 2001, and the effective
date of H.R. 4873, had it been enacted. H.R. 3928/H.R. 4532 would have permitted
U.S. nationals, that is, non-citizen nationals (American Samoans) to attend military
service academies and receive Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC)
scholarships on condition that they naturalize before graduation. S. 1545 and title
XVIII of S. 2863, the Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act of
2007 (the DREAM Act), would have provided that two years of military service may
satisfy one of the requirements for achieving full-fledged LPR status after being in
conditional LPR status.
Legislation in the 109th Congress. Section 542 of P.L. 109-16357 amended
10 U.S.C. 504 and repealed 10 U.S.C. §§3253, 8253 to establish uniform standards
for enlistment in the several armed forces service branches. Aside from LPRs, the
only foreign nationals permitted to enlist are nationals of the former Trust Territories,
Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which all have Compacts of Free
Association with the United States providing that the United States will provide
defense for those countries and that their nationals may enlist in the U.S. defense
forces. The Secretary of the relevant service branch may authorize the enlistment of
others if the Secretary determines that such enlistment is vital to the national interest.
Sections in Title VII of the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006
(S. 2611/S. 2612) as passed by the Senate would have built on the expansion of
expedited naturalization and other citizenship-related benefits for aliens serving in
the U.S. military enacted by Title XVII of P.L. 108-136. Among other things, §§711
to 715, the Kendell Frederick Citizenship Assistance Act, would have waived the
fingerprint requirement for members of the Armed Forces who were fingerprinted by
DOD upon enlistment if they submit a naturalization application within 12 months
of enlistment. Similar legislative proposals included other versions of the Kendell
Frederick Citizenship Assistance Act (H.R. 4533, S. 2097, S. 2165) and the Soldiers
to Citizens Act (S. 3947). Section 751 of S. 2611/S. 2612 would have provided that
aliens shall not be denied the opportunity to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces, and that,
during a period of hostilities, aliens may be granted U.S. citizenship after at least two
years of honorable and satisfactory service on active duty and have other
requirements waived, if they file an application, demonstrate English and civics
knowledge and good moral character to their chain of command, and take the oath
of allegiance. Similar legislative proposals were included in the Soldiers to Citizens


57 Div. A, §542, 119 Stat. 3253 (2006).

Act (S. 3947) and the Riayan Tejada Memorial Act of 2005 (H.R. 661, based on
service in a combat zone). The Bruce Vento Hmong Veterans’ Naturalization Act
of 2005 (H.R. 3018) would have amended the Hmong Veterans Naturalization Act
of 2000 by eliminating the deadline for applying for naturalization.
H.R. 3911 would have further expedited military-service-based naturalization
during peacetime by providing that the requirements for English and civics
knowledge, good moral character and allegiance to the United States and its
constitutional principles do not apply; by eliminating any required specific period of
service; and by permitting a veteran to apply for such naturalization at any time, not
just within six months of termination of service.
Several bills would have provided immigration benefits to the spouses and
children of U.S. citizen military personnel and veterans. In addition to provisions
expediting military naturalizations, H.R. 661 would have provided that certain
immigration benefits for the spouses (regardless of length of marriage), children, and
parents of a U.S. citizen who served in a combat zone designated in connection with
Operation Iraqi Freedom and died as a result of injury or disease caused by such
service. These provisions would have established specific guidelines for the
immigration benefits; however, it appears that these were similar to the provisions
of §1703 of P.L. 108-136, Div. A, codified under 8 U.S.C. §1151 notes, regarding
family-based immigrant petitions and adjustment-of-status applications, and as
amendments to INA §319 (8 U.S.C. §1430), which provides that the surviving
spouse, child or parent of a U.S. citizen (including a person granted military-service-
based posthumous citizenship) who dies during a period of honorable service in an
active duty status in the U.S. Armed Forces may be naturalized upon compliance
with all the INA requirements except for the residence and physical presence
requirements. However, the provisions of P.L. 108-136 were not limited to survivors
of service members who died as a result of combat in Operation Iraqi Freedom, but
were extended to survivors of service members who died as a result of service during
periods of hostilities.
Section 509 of S. 2611/S. 2612 would have provided that numerical limits on
immigrant visas shall not apply to the adult sons and daughters of U.S. citizens
naturalized under a statute benefitting Filipino World War II veterans. H.R. 901
would have given priority to the issuance of immigrant visas to the children and adult
sons and daughters of these naturalized Filipino World War II veterans. H.R. 4498
would have authorized the case-by-case waiver of certain naturalization requirements
for a child adopted outside the United States by military personnel who at the time
of adoption was stationed outside the United States.
Legislation in the 110th Congress. Sections 673 and 674 of P.L. 110-181,
the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 (January 28, 2008),
respectively (1) ensure reentry into the United States by LPRs who are spouses and
children accompanying a military service member abroad who might otherwise be
deemed to have abandoned their LPR status and (2) provide for the treatment of
periods abroad accompanying the service member as periods in the United States for
residence and physical presence purposes and for overseas naturalization for such
LPRs.



P.L. 110-251, the Kendell Frederick Citizenship Assistance Act (June 26,
2008)58 permits the use in military-service naturalization applications of fingerprints
taken by the DOD at the time of enlistment, rather than requiring service members
to obtain and submit separate fingerprints in accordance with the naturalization
requirements of the DHS, provided that the naturalization application was filed
within 24 months after enlistment or the fingerprints had been submitted with an
application for adjustment to LPR status within 24 months of enlistment. The
Secretaries of Homeland Security and Defense are required to cooperate to make
fingerprints and other biometric data more accessible for naturalization purposes, by
determining a data format, making fingerprints available without charge for
naturalization purposes, and otherwise facilitating military naturalizations. Rapid
electronic transmission of biometric data must be implemented within one year of
enactment. The Secretary of Homeland Security must centralize data processing for
military naturalization applications filed by service members serving abroad on active
duty. The Secretary of Homeland Security, the Directory of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), and the Directory of National Intelligence must ensure that
military naturalization applications and associated background checks are processed
and adjudicated within 180 days of receiving responses to all background checks.
The Secretary of Homeland Security is required to submit a report to the appropriate
congressional committees within 120 days of enactment on the entire adjudication
process for a military-service-based naturalization application, including a
description of (1) the methods used by the DHS and DOD to prepare, handle, and
adjudicate such applications; (2) the effectiveness of the chain of authority,
supervision, and training of employees (whether of the federal government or other
entities) who have any role in the process; and (3) the ability of DHS and DOD to use
technology to execute any aspect of the process and to safeguard privacy and civil
liberties. The Comptroller General (GAO) and the Inspector General (IG) of the DHS
are required to conduct a study, including an assessment of any technology that may
be used to improve the efficiency of the military naturalization process and an
assessment of the impact of the act on privacy and civil liberties. GAO and the IG
would be required to submit a report to the appropriate congressional committees on
this study, including recommendations for improving implementation of this act,
within 180 days of the date on which the report on the adjudication process is
submitted by the Secretary of Homeland Security. “Appropriate congressional
committees” is defined as including the Senate Committees on Armed Services,
Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, and the Judiciary, and the House of
Representatives Committees on Armed Services, Homeland Security, and the
Judiciary. The act also requires timely updates to agency websites and application
forms after changes to regulations on military naturalization. The comprehensive
immigration reform bills, S. 1348 (§§711-715 as placed on the Senate calendar), S.
1639 (§701, as placed on the Senate calendar), and H.R. 1645 (§§711-715, as
introduced), also contained versions of this legislation. S. 1348 and H.R. 1645 would
also provide for a dedicated toll-free telephone information service to assist military
service members with military-service-based naturalization.


58 Enacted S. 2516; related bill is H.R. 2884 for which the CBO report, dated November 5,

2007, is at [http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/87xx/doc8785/hr2884.pdf] (last visited July 1,


2008).



It appears that the immediate problem of requiring fingerprints from military
service members had already been partly addressed by USCIS. The fingerprint
requirement is not in the statutes or regulations governing naturalization; rather, it is
the practice to submit these to be used in conducting the criminal background check
on naturalization applicants. In testimony before the Senate Committee on Armed
Forces, Director Emilio Gonzalez of the USCIS noted that USCIS, in collaboration
with the DOD and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), had instituted a change
in the fingerprinting process permitting U.S. military personnel to sign a release
authorizing the use of fingerprints provided at enlistment for immigration purposes.59
However, recent congressional hearing testimony alleged that FBI processing of
fingerprints still accounts for significant delays despite the acceptance of DOD
fingerprints.60
Aside from these public laws, S. 2840 as marked up and ordered reported61
would expedite certain military service-related applications by establishing a FBI
liaison office in USCIS to monitor the completion of FBI background checks and by
establishing a deadline for processing such naturalization applications. These
requirements would apply to naturalization applications filed by or on behalf of
current and former service members based on military service, the spouses of current
service members posted abroad, surviving spouses and children of service members
who died on active-duty service, and deceased service members eligible for
posthumous citizenship. If USCIS could not meet the deadline, it would be required
to give the applicant an explanation for the delay and an estimate for the completion
date. The bill would also require the Director of USCIS to submit to the relevant
congressional oversight subcommittees annual reports identifying every application
covered by the requirements of the bill that is not processed and adjudicated within
one year after filing due to delays in required background checks. Within 180 days
of enactment, the Comptroller General would be required to submit to Congress a
report regarding the average length of time taken by USCIS to process and adjudicate
applications for naturalization filed by or on behalf of members of the U.S. Armed
Forces, deceased members of the Armed Forces, and their spouses and children. The
amendments to current law proposed by S. 2840 would sunset five years after the
date of enactment.


59 Testimony at a hearing on “Contributions of Immigrants to the U.S. Military” on July 10,

2006, available at [http://armed-services.senate.gov/statemnt/2006/July/Gonzalez%2007-10-


06.pdf] (last visited July 1, 2008). This policy change apparently was in response to
recommendations made by the USCIS Ombudsman in March 2006, as described in USCIS
Ombudsman, Annual Report 2006 at p. 73 (submitted to the Congressional Committees on
the Judiciary on June 19, 2006).
60 Response of Margaret D. Stock, Attorney and Lieutenant Colonel, Military Police Corps,
U.S. Army Reserve, to questions at the hearing of the House Subcommittee on Immigration,
Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law on Immigration Needs of
America’s Fighting Men and Women, May 20, 2008 (transcript of hearing unavailable as
of date of this report).
61 Text as amended in mark-up and ordered reported is available at [http://www.cq.com/
/displayamendment.do?docid=2719860&productId=1] (last visited July 1, 2008).
Congressional Budget Office (CBO) report, dated May 15, 2008, at [http://www.cbo.gov/
ftpdocs/92xx/doc9275/s2840.pdf] (last visited July 1, 2008).

H.R. 6020 would expand the scope of military naturalizations by, inter alia, (1)
providing that persons serving honorably in the Armed Forces in support of
contingency operations as defined at 10 U.S.C. §101(a)(13) would be eligible for
naturalization based in INA §329 as if they had served during a designated period of
hostilities; (2) increasing the period within which a person may file an application
under INA §328 (8 U.S.C. §1439) after termination of service from six months to one
year; and (3) eliminating the need to allege satisfaction of certain requirements during
periods when service was not continuous. The bill would eliminate conditional LPR
status for certain alien spouses, sons, or daughters who are members or veterans of
the Armed Forces and the requirement that a service member petitioning for removal
of conditional status for an alien spouse, son, or daughter must appear for a personal
interview. Removal proceedings could not be initiated against an alien who has
served or is serving honorably in the Armed Forces without the approval of the
Director of the USCIS or the Assistant Secretary of Homeland Security for U.S.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement after consideration of certain factors. Aliens
who have served or are serving honorably in the Armed Forces would not be subject
to expedited removal proceedings or reinstatement of removal orders. Certain
inadmissibility or deportation grounds would not apply to aliens who have served or
are serving honorably in the Armed Forces or who are the spouse, child, son,
daughter, parent, or minor sibling of a member of the Armed Forces. Any other
ground of inadmissibility or deportation, except for national security grounds (and
inadmissibility for drug trafficking), could be waived at the discretion of the
Secretary of Homeland Security or the Attorney General. Spouses and children of
an LPR serving in the Armed Forces would not be subject to the numerical limits on
visas for the spouses and children of an LPR. The status of an alien spouse, child,
son, daughter, parent, or minor sibling of an eligible member of the Armed Forces
shall be adjusted to that of an LPR if such alien (1) applies for adjustment and is in
the United States on the date of filing such application; (2) is admissible as an
immigrant; and (3) pays a fee, determined by the Secretary of Homeland Security.
Certain grounds of inadmissibility would not apply to such adjustment of status, and
certain other grounds could be waived at the discretion of the Secretary of Homeland
Security. This benefit would be available for two years after the death of an eligible
member of the Armed Forces whose death resulted from injury/disease incurred in
or aggravated by his/her service in the Armed Forces. An eligible member of the
Armed Forces would include (1) a U.S. citizen who is serving or has served
honorably as a member of the Selected Reserve of the Ready Reserve or on active
duty during a period of hostilities and (2) an alien who is eligible for naturalization
under INA §329.
S. 1348, one of the comprehensive immigration reform bills, included the
DREAM Act (§§621-632) with its provision that two years of military service
(honorable discharge if discharged) may satisfy one of the requirements for achieving
unconditional LPR status. This would be available to an undocumented alien who
has initially been granted conditional LPR status as a person who has been
continuously physically present in the United States after initially entering while
under the age of 16 years, among other qualifications.
Section 751 of S. 1348 would amend INA §329 to provide that persons who are
not U.S. citizens shall not be denied the opportunity to serve in the U.S. Armed
Forces and that, with the approval of the chain of command, an alien who has



performed two years of honorable, satisfactory, active-duty service shall be granted
U.S. citizenship without regard to other naturalization requirements, processes, or
procedures upon the satisfaction of three conditions. First, the alien must have filed
a naturalization application. Second, the alien must demonstrate English and civics
knowledge and good moral character to the military chain of command, consistent
with the requirements of the INA. Third, the alien must take the naturalization oath
of allegiance. The alien shall be naturalized not later than 90 days after satisfying the
requirements of this provision.
H.R. 1745 would provide immigration benefits to the immediate relatives of an
active duty or reserve member of the armed forces. It would waive inadmissibility
of such immediate relatives based on misrepresentation of material fact in order to
procure an immigration benefit or on a false claim of citizenship for any purpose or
benefit under any federal or state law. The bill would also extend the V
nonimmigrant visa to military families. V visas enable the spouses and children of
LPRs, who filed family-based immigrant petitions before December 21, 2000, and
are awaiting the availability of an immigrant visa, to enter and wait in the United
States for the immigrant visa if the petition (or the visa availability, if the petition
was approved) has been pending for three years or longer. The bill would permit the
spouses and children of active duty or reserve military personnel to receive a V visa
regardless of when the petition was filed or how long the petition or visa had been
pending.
Although not directly involving military service, with regard to the
naturalization of LPRs originally admitted into the United States as special
immigrant Iraqi or Afghani translators or interpreters, P.L. 110-3662 provides that
time spent abroad as a translator or interpreter for the U.S. Department of State or
Armed Forces shall not be considered to break any period for which continuous
residence in the United States is required for naturalization.
Current Issues
Waiver or DOD adjudication of Naturalization Requirements.
Although P.L. 108-136 and close cooperation between the DOD and USCIS of the
DHS appear to have facilitated the naturalization of military service personnel,
particularly of those serving abroad, supporters of military service members advocate
further streamlining of the process, beyond the provisions recently enacted in the
110th Congress. Some proposals would make naturalization automatic for persons
who are deployed to a combat zone, waiving any requirement for demonstrating good
moral character or knowledge of civics or English. Critics of such proposals,
although acknowledging the sacrifice and contribution of military personnel in a
combat zone, urge caution when considering eliminating substantive requirements
such as good moral character. Supporters of such proposals argue that persons
serving in the military can be assumed to have a working knowledge of English and
that an allegiance to the principles of U.S. government and good moral character can
be fairly attributed to persons serving honorably in a combat zone, justifying the


62 121 Stat. 227 (2007), amending the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2006, P.L.

109-163, Div A, §1059, 119 Stat. 3443 (2006).



waiver of any technical test of civics and English or necessity of demonstrating good
moral character independently. Furthermore, once a person is deployed to a combat
zone, the timely processing of a naturalization application becomes more urgent.
Other proposals would not waive requirements for good moral character, civics,
and English, but would authorize the chain of command in the DOD to determine
whether a military service member satisfies these requirements. Proponents assert
that the commanding officers of a military service member would be better able than
a USCIS adjudicator to judge whether that service member satisfies the requirements.
Opponents note that it would burden military officers with having to learn
immigration law and act as immigration adjudicator and that commanding officers
may inadvertently take into account factors that are not relevant to a naturalization
adjudication or may even interject personal knowledge and biases in the process.
More limited proposals would permit certain requirements for naturalization
processing to be satisfied by equivalent requirements or functions satisfied by the
DOD, such as medical physical examinations.
Providing Immigration Benefits for Immediate Relatives. There is
currently no special relief from removal nor special consideration for permitting
aliens waiting for an immigrant visa to enter or remain in the United States based on
whether the alien is an immediate relative of a military service members. Advocates
of special immigration benefits for family members of military personnel frame such
benefits as consideration extended to the military personnel, to relieve them of
anxiety and uncertainty concerning the status of family members while they are on
active duty, particularly if they are deployed abroad in a hostile area. Supporters of
current law argue that family members should not receive special treatment because
they happen to be related to a U.S. military service member. They warn that
expansion of removal relief and other immigration benefits to family members would
have implications beyond the desire to assist U.S. military personnel.
In addition to such substantive relief for family members of military service
members, there are certain procedural complications or delays. Reportedly, medical
examinations required for application for an immigrant visa, for admission to the
United States as an immigrant, or for adjustment of status to lawful permanent
residence, cannot be performed by most military physicians because they are not
recognized by DHS as being qualified to perform such examinations, thus imposing
on military families the time and expense of obtaining examinations from DHS-63
designated physicians. Under INA §232 (8 U.S.C. §1222), 8 C.F.R. § 232.2, and

42 C.F.R. part 34, medical officers of the U.S. Public Health Service and DHS-


designated civil surgeons with at least four years of professional experience are
authorized to conduct medical examinations of aliens for immigration purposes.
Civil surgeons with less than four years of experience may be designated at the
discretion of DHS. U.S. military physicians with at least four years of professional


63 Margaret D. Stock, Attorney and Lieutenant Colonel, Military Police Corps, U.S. Army
Reserve, Written Statement submitted at the hearing of the House Subcommittee on
Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law on Immigration
Needs of America’s Fighting Men and Women, p. 6, May 20, 2008 [hereinafter Stock
Written Testimony].

experience are considered to be civil surgeons for the purpose of physical
examinations required by INA §232(b) for special immigrants described in INA
§101(a)(27)(K) (8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(27)(K) defining certain aliens who enlisted in the
U.S. Armed Forces abroad as special immigrants).64 Aside from this limited purpose,
it appears that military physicians are not considered to be “civil surgeons” for the
purpose of conducting immigration-related medical examinations; therefore,
legislation would be necessary to mandate that military physicians be considered
“civil surgeons” for medical examinations required for the family of service
members.
Prosecutorial Discretion in Removal of U.S. Service Members.
Current policy guidelines of U.S. Customs and Immigration Enforcement (ICE)
direct that military service be taken into consideration in determining whether
prosecutorial discretion should be exercised in favor of any alien subject to removal,65
particularly an alien eligible for naturalization based on military service. The policy
disfavors but does not absolutely preclude initiating and pursuing removal actions
against members of the U.S. Armed Forces, and reportedly some ICE officers are
doing so.66 In any case, the policy is not grounded in a statutory requirement;
therefore, ICE officials could choose to rescind or modify the policy at their
discretion. Legislation would be necessary to make such a policy a permanent part
of the immigration statutes and/or to strengthen favorable exercise of discretion or
prohibit prosecution of removal proceedings against current or former service
members. Proponents of such legislation argue that removal actions unnecessarily
subject service members who are likely to be granted military-service-based
naturalization to the time, expense, and stress of having to defend against such
actions; burden the federal government and U.S. taxpayers with the expense of
prosecuting such actions which are likely moot; and undermine the needs and
effectiveness of the U.S. Armed Forces when active service members must take time
away from their duties to defend against such actions and potentially could be
removed.


64 P.L. 102-484, div. A, §1079, 106 Stat. 2514 (1992), codified as amended at notes under

8 U.S.C. §1222.


65 See Marcy M. Forman, Acting Director of Office of Investigations, ICE, DHS,
Memorandum re Issuances of Notices to Appear, Administrative Orders of Removal, or
Reinstatement of a Final Removal Order on Aliens with United States Military Service (June
21, 2004), available at [http://www.bibdaily.com/pdfs/Forman%206-21-04.pdf] (last visited
July 1, 2008) (“Accordingly, ICE should not initiate removal proceedings against aliens who
are eligible for naturalization under sections 328 or 329 of the INA, notwithstanding an
order of removal.”). See also Doris Meissner, Commissioner of INS, Memorandum re
Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion 8, 11 (November 17, 2000) (discussing exercise of
prosecutorial discretion in favor of not pursuing removal actions against current or former
members of the U.S. Armed Forces and former requirement that INS regional directors
approve such actions), and INS, Interim Enforcement Procedures — Standard Operating
Procedures for Enforcement Officers: Arrest, Detention, Processing and Removal, § V.D.8
(June 5, 1997).
66 Stock Written Testimony, supra note 63, at 4-5.

Appendix A. Active Duty and
Selected Reserve Noncitizen Accession Locations,
by State, as of January 2006
Percentage
StateTotalof all aliens
Alabama170.04%
Alaska490.12%
Arizona2880.69%
Arkansas180.04%
California 5,806 13.90%
Colorado 137 0.33%
Connecticut 284 0.68%
Delaware260.06%
District of Columbia480.11%
Federated States of Micronesia40.01%
Florida 2,430 5.82%
Georgia2640.63%
Guam100.02%
Hawaii3610.86%
Idaho490.12%
Illinois 579 1.39%
Indiana650.16%
Iowa620.15%
Kansas610.15%
Kentucky240.06%
Louisiana 29 0.07%
Maine140.03%
Marshall Islands10.00%
Maryland 519 1.24%
Massachusetts 472 1.13%
Michigan 121 0.29%
Minnesota 128 0.31%
Mississippi 9 0.02%
Missouri570.14%
Montana100.02%
Nebraska 52 0.12%



Percentage
StateTotalof all aliens
Nevada2090.50%
New Hampshire290.07%
New Jersey1,2502.99%
New Mexico940.23%
New York3,3387.99%
North Carolina1040.25%
North Dakota30.01%
Northern Mariana Islands40.01%
Ohio740.18%
Oklahoma680.16%
Oregon1270.30%
Palau20.00%
Pennsyl va nia 227 0.54%
Puerto Rico480.11%
Rhode Island1040.25%
South Carolina300.07%
South Dakota80.02%
T e nnessee 51 0.12%
Texas1,8254.37%
Utah690.17%
Vermont80.02%
Virgin Islands740.18%
V i rginia 499 1.19%
Washington 379 0.91%
West Virginia50.01%
Wisconsin 89 0.21%
Wyoming90.02%
Unknown 21,039 50.38%
Total 41,760 100.00%
Source: DOD data as of January 2006.



Appendix B. Active Duty Citizenship Status,
by Country of Birth: Top 50 Countries
U.S. Citizen/
Country of BirthNationalNoncitizenUnknownTotal
Philippines 14,816 4,560 705 20,081
Mexico 4,893 2,657 1,213 8,763
J a ma ica 2,865 1,050 395 4,310
Dominican Republic1,4715602262,257
Haiti 856 461 246 1,563
Colombia 1,263 421 193 1,877
El Salvador8624061911,459
Trinidad and Tobago1,0073731431,523
Peru 781 320 137 1,238
Ecuador 638 285 93 1,016
Guya na 762 283 84 1,129
Nicaragua 556 273 133 962
Nige ria 498 253 9 760
Guatemala 499 244 79 822
Korea, Republic of3,7672392784,284
V i etnam 1,536 225 87 1,848
China 586 218 128 932
Honduras 509 215 87 811
Cuba 519 213 102 834
T hailand 895 202 88 1,185
Ghana 353 189 94 636
Canada 1,391 172 105 1,668
United Kingdom2,704168942,966
Panama 1,679 134 61 1,874
Germany 9,701 132 30 9,863
V e nezuela 269 99 53 421
Liberia 241 94 35 370
Kenya1428865295
Russia235880323
Poland 362 86 54 502
Brazil 270 82 73 425
Belize 215 81 23 319



U.S. Citizen/
Country of BirthNationalNoncitizenUnknownTotal
Barbados 262 78 22 362
Laos3017423398
India4397039548
Ethiopia 152 69 41 262
Domi nica 195 67 28 290
Grenada 146 55 22 223
St. Lucia1165322191
South Africa1105227189
Ukraine 141 52 34 227
Roma nia 200 50 28 278
Togo474830125
J a pan 2,839 45 15 2,899
Sierra Leone1144328185
East Timor1641057
Bahama s 130 39 11 180
Cambodia 169 38 17 224
Paki stan 139 36 28 203
Portugal 199 36 13 248
Arge ntina 102 34 24 160
Came roon 75 34 21 130
Source: CRS analysis of DOD data as of November 2007.



Appendix C. Reserve Citizenship Status,
by Country of Birth: Top 50 Countries
U.S. Citizen/
Country of BirthNationalNoncitizenUnknownTotal
Philippines 2,942 532 6 3,480
Mexico 1,106 405 4 1,515
J a ma ica 489 166 2 657
El Salvador157970254
Dominican Republic241960337
Colombia 319 88 2 409
V i etnam 463 87 1 551
Haiti163840247
Peru162802244
Trinidad and Tobago229731303
China178702250
Nigeria98690167
Guyana161610222
Korea, Republic of 593521646
Ecuador 153 50 0 203
Canada568465619
Nicaragua 69 42 0 111
United Kingdom1,0194001,059
Guatemala 94 37 1 132
T hailand 175 37 0 212
Honduras 95 35 1 131
Cuba255330288
Brazil84260110
India200250225
V e nezuela 77 25 0 102
Ghana4724071
Poland110220132
Liberia3618054
Kenya3317050
Laos7815093
Cambodia3914154
Germany 1,808 14 0 1,822



U.S. Citizen/
Country of BirthNationalNoncitizenUnknownTotal
Portugal 99 14 0 113
Belize4313056
Costa Rica3913153
Dominica4513058
Panama348130361
Cameroon1311024
Bolivia3610046
Morocco4910059
Barbados529061
Hong Kong759084
Pakistan559165
Argentina468155
Chile318039
Ethiopia268034
J a pan 1,023 8 0 1,031
Korea (North)788086
Russia418049
Ukraine158023
Source: CRS analysis of DOD data as of November 2007.