NAFTA and the Mexican Economy

NAFTA and the Mexican Economy
November 4, 2008
M. Angeles Villarreal
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Marisabel Cid
Research Associate
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division



NAFTA and the Mexican Economy
Summary
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), in effect since January
1994, plays a very strong role in the bilateral economic relationship between Mexico
and the United States. The two countries are also closely tied in areas not directly
related to trade and investment such as security, environmental, migration, and health
issues. The effects of NAFTA on Mexico and the state of the Mexican economy
have important impacts on U.S. economic and political interests. As NAFTA
approaches its 15th anniversary, a number of policymakers have raised the issue of
revisiting NAFTA and renegotiating parts of the agreement. Some important factors
in evaluating NAFTA include the effects of the agreement on Mexico and how theseth
relate to U.S.-Mexico economic relations. In the 110 Congress, major issues of
concern have been related mostly to economic conditions in Mexico, the effect of
NAFTA on the United States and Mexico, and Mexican migrant workers in the
United States.
In 1990, then Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari approached the
United States with the idea of forming a free trade agreement (FTA). Mexico’s main
motivation in pursuing an FTA with the United States was to stabilize the Mexican
economy by attracting foreign direct investment. The Mexican economy had
experienced many difficulties throughout most of the 1980s with a significant
deepening of poverty. The intention of Mexico in entering NAFTA was to increase
export diversification by attracting foreign direct investment (FDI), which would help
create jobs, increase wage rates, and reduce poverty.
At the time that NAFTA went into effect, the expectation among supporters was
that the agreement would improve investor confidence in Mexico, attract investment,
and narrow the income differentials between Mexico and the United States and
Canada. Measuring the effects of NAFTA on the Mexican economy is difficult
because the economy was also affected by other factors, such as economic cycles in
the United States (Mexico’s largest trading partner) and currency fluctuations. In
addition, Mexico’s unilateral trade liberalization measures of the 1980s and the
currency crisis of 1995 both affected economic growth, per capita gross domestic
product (GDP), and real wages.
While NAFTA may have brought economic and social benefits to the Mexican
economy as a whole, the benefits have not been evenly distributed throughout the
country. Wages and employment tend to be higher in states experiencing higher
levels of FDI and trade. The agricultural sector experienced a higher amount of
worker displacement after NAFTA because of increased competition from the United
States and because of Mexican domestic agricultural reforms. In terms of regional
effects, initial conditions in Mexico determined which Mexican states experienced
stronger economic growth as a result of NAFTA. States with higher levels of
telecommunications and transportation infrastructure gained more benefits than
poorer states with lower levels of education, infrastructure, and institutional capacity.
Some economists argue that while trade liberalization may narrow income disparities
over the long run with other countries, it may indirectly lead to larger disparities in
income levels within a country. This report will be updated as events warrant.



Contents
In troduction ......................................................1
Mexico’s Motivations for Entering NAFTA.............................1
Economic Conditions in Mexico Before and After NAFTA.................3
GDP Growth.................................................4
Poverty ......................................................5
Effects of NAFTA on Mexico........................................7
Economic Effects..............................................7
Mexican Wages and Per Capita GDP..............................8
U.S.-Mexico Trade............................................10
Regional Effects of NAFTA....................................11
Mexico’s Agricultural Sector and NAFTA.............................12
Mexican Productivity, Exports and Prices..........................12
Employment .................................................14
Rural-Urban Migration........................................15
Mexican Programs for Farmers..................................16
Views of NAFTA in Mexico........................................16
Discussion ......................................................18
Appendix. Map of Mexico.........................................20
List of Figures
Figure 1. Real GDP Growth in Mexico.................................5
Figure 2. Poverty Levels in Mexico....................................6
Figure 3. Mexican Agricultural Production.............................13
Figure 4. Mexican Public Opinion of Trade Liberalization.................18
Figure 5. Map of Mexico...........................................21
List of Tables
Table 1. Mexican Wages and Per Capita GDP: 1996-2008.................9
Table 2. U.S.-Mexico Trade: 1994-2007..............................11



NAFTA and the Mexican Economy
Introduction
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), in effect since January
1994, plays a very strong role in the bilateral economic relationship between Mexico
and the United States. The two countries are also closely tied in areas not directly
related to trade and investment such as security, environmental, migration, and health
issues. The effects of NAFTA on Mexico and the state of the Mexican economy
have important impacts on U.S. economic and political interests. As NAFTAth
approaches its 15 anniversary, a number of policymakers have raised the issue of
revisiting NAFTA and renegotiating some aspects of the agreement. In evaluating
NAFTA, it is important to examine the effects of the agreement on Mexico and how
these relate to the economic relationship of the United States with Mexico. In theth
110 Congress, some of the issues of concern have been related mostly to economic
conditions in Mexico, the effect of NAFTA on Mexico, and Mexican migrant
workers in the United States. This report provides an overview of Mexico’s
motivations for entering NAFTA, the Mexican economy, the economic effects of
NAFTA in Mexico, and the views of NAFTA within Mexico. It also provides
information on NAFTA’s effect on Mexico’s agricultural sector because this has
been one of the more controversial issues surrounding NAFTA in Mexico. This
report will be updated as events warrant.
Mexico’s Motivations for Entering NAFTA1
In 1990, the President of Mexico at the time, Carlos Salinas de Gortari,
approached then U.S. President George H.W. Bush with the idea of forming a free
trade agreement (FTA). President Salinas de Gortari’s main motivation in pursuing
an FTA with the United States was to stabilize the Mexican economy by attracting
foreign direct investment (FDI). The Mexican economy had experienced many
difficulties throughout most of the 1980s with a significant deepening of poverty.
Mexico’s intention in entering NAFTA was to increase export diversification by
attracting FDI, which would help create jobs, increase wage rates, and reduce
poverty. At the time NAFTA went into effect, many studies predicted that the
agreement would cause an overall positive impact on the Mexican economy.


1 This section draws upon information from the following sources: CRS Report 93-668 E,
Mexico’s Changing Policy Toward Foreign investment: NAFTA Implications, by M.
Angeles Villarreal, July 19, 1993. United Nations, Economic Development Unit, Mexico:
Economic Growth, Exports, and Industrial Performance after NAFTA, by Juan Carlos
Moreno-Brid, Juan Carlos Rivas Valdivia, and Jesús Santamaria, December 2005.

From the 1930s through part of the 1980s, Mexico maintained a strong
protectionist trade policy in an effort to be independent of any foreign power and as
a means to industrialization. Mexico established a policy of import substitution in
the 1930s, consisting of a broad, general protection of the entire industrial sector.
Mexico placed high restrictions on foreign investment and controlled the exchange
rate to encourage domestic industrial growth. Mexico also nationalized the oil
industry during this time. These protectionist economic policies remained in effect
until the country began to experience a series of economic challenges caused by a
number of factors.
The 1980s in Mexico were marked by inflation2 and a declining standard of
living. The 1982 debt crisis in which the Mexican government was unable to meet
its foreign debt obligations was a primary cause of the economic challenges the
country faced in the early to mid-1980’s. Much of the government’s efforts in
addressing the challenges were placed on privatizing state industries and moving
toward trade liberalization. In the late 1980s and early into the 1990s, the Mexican
government implemented a series of measures to restructure the economy that
included steps toward unilateral trade liberalization.
Mexican began to reverse its protectionist stance in the mid-1980s when the
government was forced to declare that it was unable to repay its debts and to default
on its loans. Then President Miguel de la Madrid took steps to open and liberalize
the Mexican economy and initiated procedures to replace import substitution policies
with policies aimed at attracting foreign investment, lowering trade barriers and
making the country competitive in non-oil exports. In 1986, Mexico acceded to the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), assuring further trade
liberalization measures and closer ties with the United States.
In November 1987, the United States and Mexico entered into a bilateral
understanding on trade and investment called the Framework of Principles and
Procedures for Consultation Regarding Trade and Investment Relations.3 Prior to
this agreement, there had been no legal framework to govern commercial relations
between the two countries. There were two parts to the agreement, one served as a
mechanism to address trade issues, and the other established an agenda for the
removal or reduction of trade barriers. Seven topics were listed in the agenda for
possible future discussions: textiles, agriculture, steel, investment, technology
transfer and intellectual property, electronics, and information on the service sector.
Under this framework understanding, two sectoral agreements were reached which
liberalized trade in steel, textiles, and alcoholic beverages. In addition, working
groups started meeting on agriculture, industry, services, tariffs, and intellectual
property rights.


2 High inflation causes interest rates and prices to go up and real wages to fall, thus
decreasing consumption and investments due to the uncertainty in the market flow which
contributes to a decline in the overall standard of living.
3 Gary Hufbauer and Jeffrey Schott, North American Free Trade: Issues and
Recommendations, Institute for International Economics, 1992.

In October 1989, the two countries entered into a second trade and investment
understanding called The Understanding Regarding Trade and Investment
Facilitation Talks.4 This agreement built on the work of the 1987 agreement,
establishing a negotiating process for expanding trade and investment opportunities.
These two agreements significantly improved trade relations between Mexico and the
United States and other improvements in trade relations followed. Marking the
advances in trade relations between the two countries, Mexico proposed negotiations
for a free trade agreement with the United States. In June 1990, then President
Carlos Salinas de Gortari of Mexico and then President George H.W. Bush issued a
joint statement in support of negotiating a free trade agreement.
Economic Conditions in Mexico
Before and After NAFTA
The Mexican economy is strongly tied to economic conditions in the United
States, making it very sensitive to economic developments in the United States.5
Mexico is highly reliant on exports and most of Mexico’s exports go to the United
States. In 2007, Mexico’s exports as a percent of GDP equaled 33%, up from 10%
twenty years ago, and over 80% of Mexico’s exports went to the United States. The
state of the Mexican economy is important to the United States because of the close
trade and investment ties between the two countries, and because of other social and
political issues that could be affected by economic conditions, particularly poverty
and how it relates to migration issues.
Not all changes in economic growth or trade and investment patterns in Mexico
since 1994 can be attributed to NAFTA. The economy has also been affected by
other economic factors such as economic growth in the United States and currency
fluctuations. Also, trade-related job gains and losses since NAFTA may have
accelerated trends that were ongoing prior to NAFTA and may not be totally
attributable to the trade agreement. It is difficult to isolate the economic effects of
NAFTA from other economic or political factors. For example, Mexico has
experienced at least two major events outside of NAFTA that had economic
consequences. Mexico’s unilateral trade liberalization measures prior to NAFTA and
the currency crisis of 1995 both affected economic growth, per capita GDP, and real
wages in Mexico.
In the mid-1990s, Mexico experienced a financial crisis caused by a number of
complex financial, economic, and political factors. The early 1990s in Mexico were
marked by a large increase in foreign investment as investor confidence in the
Mexican economy grew due to the prospect of NAFTA. However, signs that
Mexico’s economy was not as fundamentally strong as it appeared began to surface
after the assassination of Mexican presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio in


4 Ibid.
5 For more information, see CRS Report RL32934, U.S.-Mexico Economic Implications:
Trends, Issues, and Implications, by M. Angeles Villarreal.

March 1994.6 The shock of the assassination resulted in a subsequent outflow of
foreign exchange reserves and growing concerns about a currency devaluation. In
response to these concerns, the Mexican government issued short-term dollar-
indexed notes to finance the growing current account deficit.7
The Mexican government expected investor confidence to be restored after the
August 1994 presidential election. Foreign investment flows, however, did not
recover to the level of expectation. In the months following the election, the current
account deficit widened as imports surged due to an overvalued peso. The
government began to experience a short-term liquidity crisis.8 By December 1994,
the continued decrease in the inflows of foreign direct investment and foreign
exchange reserves put pressure on the government to abandon its previous fixed
exchange rate policy and adopt a floating exchange rate regime. As a result,
Mexico’s currency plunged by around 50% within six months, sending the country
into a deep recession.9
In the aftermath of the 1994 devaluation, the Mexican government took several
steps to restructure the economy and lessen the impact of the currency crisis among
the more disadvantaged sectors of the economy. The United States and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) assisted the Mexican government by putting
together an emergency financial support package of up to $50 billion. Mexico
adopted tight monetary and fiscal policies to reduce inflation and absorb some of the
costs of the banking sector crisis. The austerity plan also included an increase in the
value-added tax, budget cuts, and increases in electricity and gasoline prices.10
The peso steadily depreciated through the end of the 1990s, which led to greater
exports and helped the country’s exporting industries. However, the peso devaluation
also resulted in a decline in real income, hurting mostly the poorest segments of the
population, but also the newly emerging middle class. Yet, NAFTA and the change
in the Mexican economy to an export-based economy may have helped to soften the
impact of the currency devaluation.
GDP Growth
Between 1960 and 1980, the Mexican economy grew at an average annual rate
of over 6.5%, resulting in significant improvements in per capita GDP and living
standards. Between 1980 and 1987, however, average real GDP growth dropped to
less than 1% and productivity growth fell to negative numbers. The economic
reforms in the latter part of the 1980s helped Mexico to recover from the 1982 debt


6 U.S. General Accounting Office, Mexico’s Financial Crisis: Origins, Awareness,
Assistance, and Initial Efforts to Recover, GAO Report GGD-96-56, February 1996, p. 9.
7 Ibid., p. 10.
8 GAO Report GGD-96-56, pp. 5-6.
9 Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), “Mexico Finance: The Peso Crisis, Ten Years On,”
January 3, 2005.
10 Joachim Zietz, “Why Did the Peso Collapse? Implications for American Trade,” Global
Commerce, by , Volume 1, No. 1, Summer 1995.

crisis, with GDP growth averaging 3.8% between 1990 and 1994 (see Figure 1).11
In 1995, after the financial crisis, GDP growth declined by 6.2%, but the Mexican
economy managed to grow 5%-6% the following three years. Real GDP growth
dropped from 6.2% in 2000 to -0.2% in 2001. Improved economic conditions in the
United States after 2001 helped Mexico’s economy improve as well. Real GDP
growth in 2004 was 4.4%, up from 1.4% in 2003 and 0.8% in 2002. In 2006, GDP12
growth was 4.8% but decreased to 3.3% in 2007. Real GDP growth for 2008 is
forecast at 2.3%, and 1.6% for 2009.13
Figure 1. Real GDP Growth in Mexico


8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
198 5 198 8 199 1 199 4 199 7 200 0 200 3 20 0 6
Source: Economist Intelligence Unit.
Poverty
Poverty is one of the more serious and pressing economic problems facing
Mexico. President Felipe Calderon stated early in his administration that his top
economic priorities were to reduce poverty and create jobs. Former President Fox
also considered the problem of poverty as one of Mexico’s principal challenges and
stated that the highest priority of his administration was to combat poverty.
According to a 2004 World Bank Study,14 the Mexican government had made
progress in its poverty reduction efforts, but poverty continues to be a basic challenge
for the country’s development. Poverty is often associated with social exclusion,
especially of indigenous groups of people who comprise 20% of those who live in
11 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Working Paper, GDP Growth, Potential Output, and
Output Gaps in Mexico, by Ebrima Faal, May 2005.
12 EIU, Country Reports: Mexico, various years.
13 EIU, Country Outlook, September 2008.
14 The World Bank Group, Mexico Makes Progress and Faces Challenges in Poverty
Reduction Efforts, June 2004.

extreme poverty. The 1995 currency crisis was a major setback to Mexico’s efforts
in alleviating poverty levels, and though there was some improvement after the crisis,
the poverty levels did not decline to their pre-crisis levels until 2002 (see Figure 2).15
The percentage of people living in extreme poverty as measured by the World
Bank16, fell from 24.2% of the population in 2000, to 20.3% in 2002, and 18.6% in
2005. Those living in moderate poverty fell from 53.7% of the population in 2000
to 51.7% in 2002 and 47.8% in 2005. Mexico’s continuing problem of poverty is17
especially widespread in rural areas and remains at the Latin American average.
The government has made significant efforts to combat poverty, but it remains
widespread and is closely linked to high levels of inequality in terms of unequal
access to healthcare, education, and available work opportunities.18
Figure 2. Poverty Levels in Mexico


70%


60%


50%


40%


30%


20%


10%


0
19 9 2 19 94 19 96 19 98 20 00 20 0 2 20 04
Moderate PovertyExtreme Poverty
Sources: World Bank and the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Mexico Institute.
Notes: Percentages of those living in moderate poverty, include those living in extreme poverty. The
World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than U.S. $1 a day and moderate poverty as
living on less than U.S. $2 a day.
15 The World Bank Group, Poverty in Mexico - Fact Sheet, 2008. Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars, More than Neighbors: An Overview of Mexico and U.S.-
Mexico Relations, by Andrew Selee, undated.
16 The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than U.S. $1(purchasing power
parity) a day and moderate poverty as living on less than U.S. $2 (purchasing power parity)
a day.
17 Ibid.
18 The World Bank, Poverty in Mexico: An Assessment of Conditions, Trends and
Government Strategy, Report No. 28612-ME, June 2004.

Mexico’s main program to reduce poverty is the Oportunidades program. The
program seeks to not only alleviate the immediate effects of poverty through cash and
in-kind transfers, but also by improving nutrition and health standards among poor
families and increasing educational attainment. This program provides cash transfers
to families in poverty who demonstrate that they regularly attend medical
appointments and can certify that children are attending school. Monthly benefits are
a minimum of $15 with a cap of about $150. The majority of households receiving
Oportunidades benefits are in Mexico’s six poorest states: Chiapas, Mexico State,
Puebla, Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Guerrero.19
Effects of NAFTA on Mexico
NAFTA is a free trade agreement that eliminated trade and investment barriers
among NAFTA trading partners. Upon implementation, almost 70% of U.S. imports
from Mexico and 50% of U.S. exports to Mexico received duty-free treatment. The
remainder of duties were eliminated over a period of 15 years after the agreement
was in effect. The agreement also contained provisions for market access to U.S.
firms in most services sectors; protection of U.S. foreign direct investment in
Mexico; and intellectual property rights protection for U.S. companies. At the time
that NAFTA went into effect, a number of economic studies predicted that the trade
agreement would have a positive overall effect on the Mexican economy, narrowing
the U.S.-Mexico gap in prices of goods and services and the differential in real
wages.
Economic Effects
While a number of studies have found that NAFTA has brought economic and
social benefits to the Mexican economy as a whole, the benefits have not been evenly
distributed throughout the country. Most studies after NAFTA have found that the
effects on the Mexican economy tended to be modest at most.20 While there have
been periods of positive growth and negative growth in Mexico after the agreement
was implemented, much of the increases in trade began in the late 1980s when the
country began trade liberalization measures. Though its net economic effects may
have been positive, NAFTA itself has not been enough to lower income disparities
within Mexico, or between Mexico and the United States or Canada.
A 2005 World Bank study assessing some of the economic impacts from
NAFTA on Mexico concluded that NAFTA helped Mexico get closer to the levels
of development in the United States and Canada. The study states that NAFTA
helped Mexican manufacturers to adopt to U.S. technological innovations more
quickly and likely had positive impacts on the number and quality of jobs. Another
finding was that since NAFTA went into effect, the overall macroeconomic volatility,
or wide variations in the GDP growth rate, has declined in Mexico. Business cycles


19 Santiago Levy, Progress Against Poverty, Brookings Institution, 2006.
20 For more information, see CRS Report RS21737, NAFTA at Ten: Lessons from Recent
Studies, by J.F. Hornbeck, June 8, 2005.

in Mexico, the United States, and Canada have had higher levels of synchronicity
since NAFTA, and NAFTA has reinforced the high sensitivity of Mexican economic
sectors to economic developments in the United States.21
Several economists have noted that it is likely that NAFTA contributed to
Mexico’s economic recovery directly and indirectly after the 1995 currency crisis.
Mexico responded to the crisis by implementing a strong economic adjustment
program but also by fully adhering to its NAFTA obligations to liberalize trade with
the United States and Canada. NAFTA may have supported the resolve of the
Mexican government to continue with the course of market-based economic reforms,
resulting in increasing investor confidence in Mexico. The World Bank study
estimates that FDI in Mexico would have been approximately 40% lower without
NAFTA. 22
One of the main arguments in favor of NAFTA at the time it was being
proposed by policymakers was that the agreement would improve economic
conditions in Mexico and narrow the income gap between Mexico and the United
States. Studies that have addressed the issue of economic convergence23 have noted
that economic convergence in North America might not materialize under free trade
as long as “fundamental differences” in initial conditions persist over time. One
study argues that NAFTA is not enough to help narrow the disparities in economic
conditions between Mexico and the United States and that Mexico needs to invest
more in education; innovation and infrastructure; and in the quality of national
institutions. The study states that income convergence between a Latin American
country and the United States is limited by the wide differences in the quality of
domestic institutions, in the innovation dynamics of domestic firms, and in the skills
of the labor force.24 Another study also notes that the ability of Mexico to improve
economic conditions depends on its capacity to improve its national institutions,
adding that Mexican institutions did not improve significantly more than those of
other Latin American countries during the post-NAFTA period.25
Mexican Wages and Per Capita GDP
This section provides information on Mexican wages over a period of time,
however any changes in Mexican wages since NAFTA implementation cannot be
solely attributable to trade integration. Wages are reflective of a number of economic


21 The World Bank, Lessons from NAFTA for Latin America and the Caribbean, by Daniel
Lederman, William F. Maloney, and Luis Servén, 2005. (Hereinafter Lessons from NAFTA,

2005)


22 Ibid.
23 Economic convergence can be broadly defined as a narrowing of the disparities in the
economic levels and the manufacturing performances of particular countries or their regions.
The goal of the theory of economic convergence is to research and analyze the factors
influencing the rates of economic growth and real per capita income in countries.
24 Lessons from NAFTA, 2005.
25 Economia, “NAFTA and Convergence in North America: High Expectations, Big Events,
Little Time,” by William Easterly, Norbert Fiess, and Daniel Lederman, Fall 2003.

variables including GDP, productivity, exchange rates, and international trade.
Mexican wages rose steadily from the early 1980s until the mid-1990s, when the
currency crisis hit. After a drop in average real wages in 1996 of 15.5%, real wages
increased steadily until 2000, when the average rate of growth was 11.8%. Since
then the average rate of growth has only varied slightly (see Table 1).
Mexico’s trade liberalization measures may have affected the ratio between
skilled and non-skilled workers in Mexico. In 1988, the real average wage of skilled
workers in Mexico’s manufacturing industry was 2.25 times larger than that of non-
skilled workers. This ratio increased until 1996, when it was about 2.9, but then26
remained stable until 2000. The World Bank study found that NAFTA brought
economic and social benefits to the Mexican economy, but that the agreement in
itself was not sufficient to ensure a narrowing of the wage gap between Mexico and
the United States. The study states that NAFTA had a positive effect on wages and
employment in some Mexican states, but that the wage differential within the country
increased as a result of trade liberalization.27
Table 1. Mexican Wages and Per Capita GDP: 1996-2008

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008a


Average Realb
Wage Index 7880899699103103
(LCU, 1995=100)
Average Realc
Wages -15.52.611.81.60.02.7-0.1
(% change from
previous year)
Per Capita GDP 3,5274,3285,8196,3346,5127,8208,910
($ US)
Per Capita GDP d)7,6498,5439,5519,76910,55011,82012,920
($ PPPs
Source: Economist Intelligence Unit
a. Forecast.
b. Average real wage index in local currency rebased to 1996=100.
c. Percentage change in hourly wages in local currency adjusted for inflation over previous year.
d. PPP refers to purchasing power parity, which reflects the purchasing power of foreign currencies
in U.S. dollars.
According to a report published in the Journal of Development Economics that
examines wage inequality in Mexico before and after NAFTA, studies on NAFTA
have not always agreed on the effect of trade on wages or the reasons for the


26 Esquivel, Gerardo, and José Antonio Rodríguez-López, “Technology, trade, and wage
inequality in Mexico before and after NAFTA,” Journal of Development Economics, 2003.
27 Lessons from NAFTA, 2005.

increasing wage differential between skilled and unskilled Mexican workers.28 Some
studies conclude that the reason for the rise in wages for more highly skilled workers
is the technological change brought about by trade. Others link the rise in wage
differentials to trade and the changes in prices of skill-intensive goods that result
from trade liberalization. As prices for skill-intensive goods decline after trade
liberalization, the demand for skilled workers rises and wages rise. The authors of
the report conclude that the sharp increase in wage inequality in Mexico was caused
by technological change. They argue that trade liberalization alone had almost no
effect on the wage gap, but that the technological change that came about after
NAFTA caused the wage gap to widen.29
U.S.-Mexico Trade
Mexico’s trade with the United States has grown considerably since 1994.
Mexico had a trade deficit of $1.3 billion with the United States in 1994, the year of
NAFTA implementation (see Table 2). In subsequent years, the trade balance
shifted to a surplus as exports to the United States increased. While imports from the
United States also increased after NAFTA, the rate of growth was not as high. In

2007, Mexico had a trade surplus of $90.8 billion with the United States. U.S.


imports from Mexico totaled $210.2 billion in 2007 while exports to Mexico totaled
$119.4 billion. In 2007, the top U.S. imports from Mexico were crude petroleum oil,
television apparatus, motor vehicles, and motor vehicle parts. The top U.S. exports
to Mexico were motor vehicle parts, petroleum oil products (other than crude), motor30
vehicles, and insulated wire or cables.
Much of the increase in U.S.-Mexico trade could be attributable to NAFTA, but,
as stated previously, exchange rates and economic conditions have also been a factor.
The devaluation of the Mexican peso against the U.S. dollar in 1995 limited the
purchasing power of the Mexican people and also made products from Mexico less
expensive for the U.S. market. U.S. imports from Mexico increased from $49.5
billion in 1994 to $74.2 billion in 1996, while U.S. exports to Mexico also increased
but at a slower rate. As economic conditions in Mexico improved in the late 1990s,
trade with the United States rose steadily until 2001 when the downturn in the U.S.
economy caused trade to slow down. In the years after 2001, Mexico’s economy
continued to follow U.S. economic trends and trade increased in the following years,
though at a slower rate.


28 Esquivel and Rodríguez-López, p. 553.
29 Ibid., pp. 551-552.
30 Based on trade data from the United States International Trade Commission.

Table 2. U.S.-Mexico Trade: 1994-2007
(US $ billions)
% Change
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 1994-2007
U.S. 50.8 54.7 75.4 100.4 86.1 93.0 114.6 119.4 135%
Exports
U.S. 49.5 74.2 93.0 134.7 134.1 155.0 197.1 210.2 325%
Imports
Trade 1.3 -19.5 -17.6 -34.3 -48.0 -62.0 -82.5 -90.8
Balance
Source: Compiled by CRS using trade data from the United States International Trade Commission.
Regional Effects of NAFTA
While the overall effects of NAFTA on the Mexican economy might have been
positive, the effects have been unequal across regions and sectors. Wages and
employment tend to be higher in states experiencing higher levels of foreign direct
investment and trade. The effects of trade liberalization have varied widely among
regions, and while trade liberalization may narrow income disparities over the long
run with other countries, it may indirectly lead to larger disparities in income levels
within a country.
Studies have found that initial conditions in Mexico determined which Mexican31
states experienced stronger economic growth as a result of NAFTA. States with
less developed infrastructure (transportation and communications) did not receive the
benefits from NAFTA as other states. Telecommunications infrastructure and human
capital were especially important in determining the economic performance of
individuals states. The states with more telephone service and a higher skilled labor
force experienced more positive impacts. Northern and central states grew faster
throughout the 1990s, modestly reducing the income differentials with those of the
Mexico City area. Poorer southern states grew slower during the same time period
due to low levels of education, infrastructure, and quality of local institutions,
making them less prepared to gain from trade liberalization.32


31 William Easterly, Norbert Fiess, and Daniel Lederman, Economia, “NAFTA and
Convergence in North America: High Expectations, Big Events, Little Time,” Fall 2003.
The World Bank, Lessons from NAFTA for Latin America and the Caribbean, by Daniel
Lederman, William F. Maloney, and Luis Servén, 2005. Gerardo Esquivel and Miguel
Messmacher, Economic Integration and Sub-National Development: The Mexican
Experience with NAFTA, February 2003.
32 Easterly, Fiess, and Lederman, “NAFTA and Convergence in North America: High
Expectations, Big Events, Little Time,” Fall 2003.

Mexico’s Agricultural Sector and NAFTA
One of the more controversial aspects of NAFTA has been its effect on the
agricultural sector in Mexico and the perception that NAFTA has caused a higher
amount of worker displacement in the agricultural sector than in other sectors of the
economy. While some of the changes in the agricultural sector are a direct result of
NAFTA, as Mexico faced increasing import competition from the United States,
many of the changes are also attributable to Mexico’s unilateral agricultural reform
measures. Mexico began to reform its agricultural sector in the 1980s; most domestic
agricultural and trade policy reform measures included privatization and resulted in
increased competition. Mexico’s unilateral reform measures included eliminating
state enterprises related to agriculture and removing staple price supports and
subsidies.33 With the reform of Mexico’s Agrarian Law, lands that had been
distributed to ejidos or community rural groups following the 1910 revolution gained
the right to privatize. Another major reform was the abolishment of CONASUPO,
Mexico’s primary agency for government intervention in agriculture. The agency
bought staples from farmers at guaranteed prices and processed the products or sold
them at low prices to processors and consumers. By 1999, the company was
abolished.34 Many of Mexico’s domestic reforms in agriculture coincided with
NAFTA negotiations, beginning in 1991, and continued beyond the implementation
of NAFTA in 1994. The unilateral reforms in the agricultural sector make it difficult
to separate those effects from the effects of NAFTA.
Mexican Productivity, Exports and Prices
With Mexico’s entry into NAFTA, the expectation was that relative prices for
certain Mexican crops would decrease while prices for other crops would likely
remain the same. This was based on the economic expectation that, by removing
Mexico’s price and trade interventions in basic crops such as grains and oilseeds,
prices for the same goods in Mexico and the United States would equalize. Prices
for crops that were exported such as fruits and vegetables were expected to stay the
same because these had not been subject to major government intervention before or
since NAFTA. NAFTA and Mexico’s internal reforms were expected to lead to the
“law of one price” for all agricultural goods produced in North America. This meant
that prices for basic crops such as grains and oilseeds produced in Mexico, which
previously had fixed prices by the government, would decline as these goods faced
competition from U.S. goods. NAFTA and agriculture reform measures were also
expected to increase efficiency in Mexico’s agricultural production as farmers
adjusted to competition from lower cost imports. Production in agricultural sectors
that had prior price and trade interventions was expected to decrease as lower-priced
imports from the United States entered the market, while production in export-


33 Mexico’s agricultural reform measures of the 1990s removed government subsidies and
price controls in the agricultural sector that resulted in rising prices for tortillas. Tortillas
are the basic staple for the Mexican diet and a necessity of the poor. For this reason, higher
prices had a greater effect on the poor than on middle- and higher-income Mexicans.
34 Yuñez Naude, Antonio, and J. Edward Taylor, The Effects of NAFTA and Domestic
Reforms in the Agriculture of Mexico: Predictions and Facts, Région et Développement No.

23-2006, 2006, p. 163. (Hereinafter Yuñez Naude and Taylor)



oriented sectors, mainly fruits and vegetables, was expected to increase. As a result
of these shifts, employment was expected to increase in some areas, but, according
to one study, the increase was not expected to be large enough to absorb all the
workers who would be displaced by reduced production in other sectors.35
After NAFTA, Mexican prices of basic crops such as maize dropped and,
subsequently, Mexican imports of those crops increased. Mexican agricultural
production, however, did not decrease after NAFTA. The Mexican government’s
unilateral liberalization of corn and NAFTA were both factors in declining prices of
corn in Mexico. In 1993, the price of corn in Mexico was $4.84 per bushel; the price
fell to $3.65 per bushel in 1997 and has remained at about the same level ever since.36
Mexican corn production, however, increased despite the decline in prices (see
Figure 3). Total production of maize increased from an annual average of 12.5
million metric tons during the 1983-1990 period to an annual average of 17.7 million
metric tons, representing an increase of 41%, during the post-NAFTA period of
1994-2001.37 Mexican corn production yields were a fraction of U.S. corn
production yields in 2003, but in spite of the low yields, Mexican corn production
increased after NAFTA. Between 1990 and 2003, Mexican corn production
increased 44%, a faster rate of growth than U.S. corn production which increased by

27% during the same time period.38


Figure 3. Mexican Agricultural Production


Average Annual Averages
20
15
10
5
0
19 83 -1 99 0 1 9 91 - 1 99 3 19 94 -2 00 1
Maize
Other Basic Crops
Fruits
Vegetables
Source: Yunez Naude and Taylor, 2006.
35 Yuñez Naude and Taylor, p. 165.
36 Hufbauer, Gary Clyde, and Jeffrey J. Schott, NAFTA Revisited: Achievements and
Challenges, pp. 333-334. (Hereinafter Hufbauer and Schott)
37 Yuñez and Naude, p. 179.
38 Hufbauer and Schott, p. 331-332.

Most of the effects from NAFTA likely took place within the first ten years of
implementation. From 1993 to 2003, Mexican exports to the United States in
agricultural products increased from $2.7 billion in 1993 to $6.3 billion in 2003,
while Mexican exports to Canada increased from $136 million to $409 million over
the same time period. Mexican imports from the United States also increased during
this time period, from $3.6 billion in 1993 to $7.9 billion in 2003. Mexican exports
to the United States sharply increased in the following categories: sugar and related
products (595%), beverages excluding fruit juices (584%), and grains and feeds
(328%). U.S. foreign direct investment in the Mexican food processing industry
more than doubled from $2.3 billion in 1993 to $5.7 billion in 2000.39
Employment
Changes in agricultural employment in Mexico since NAFTA implementation
cannot be attributed entirely to trade liberalization, not only because of Mexico’s
unilateral reform measures which coincided with NAFTA, but also because these
changes may result from the industrialization process. Some economists argue that
as countries become more industrialized, agriculture plays a smaller role in the
economy and employs a smaller share of the workforce. One study covering 76
countries shows that a 1% increase in per capita GDP is associated with a reduction
in agriculture value-added as a share of GDP by about 0.6 percentage points. In South
Korea, for example, the agricultural share of GDP declined from about 25% in 1970
to 5% in 2000 due to rapid industrialization.40
A report by the Institute for International Economics (IIE) on the achievements
and challenges of NAFTA discusses the effect of NAFTA on the agricultural sector.
The report uses international comparisons that suggest that the Mexican agricultural
labor force as a proportion of total labor was very high at the time of NAFTA and
that many farmers were likely to lose their jobs as the country became more efficient
in agricultural production. The study cites an estimate that, once all Mexican tariffs
were eliminated, total farm employment in Mexico would decline by an estimated
800,000 workers.41 Agricultural production in Mexico has been increasingly centered
on large-scale farms, factory-type livestock lots, and capital-intensive food
processing, which puts pressure on small-scale farms and household farmers in
Mexico. Another study states that the number of Mexicans employed in rural
agriculture declined from 8.1 million to 6.8 million and that the value added42 by
Mexican agriculture dropped from about $32 billion in 1993 to about $25 billion in

2003.43


39 Hufbauer and Schott, p. 288.
40 Ibid, p. 286.
41 Hufbauer and Schott cite the study by Antonio Yuñez-Naude in the World Bank, Lessons
from NAFTA: The Case of Mexico’s Agricultural Sector, Washington, DC, 2002.
42 Value added refers to the additional value created at a particular stage of production. The
number is often used by economists to avoid double-counting the units of production in the
final value of the product.
43 Hufbauer and Schott, p. 289.

Rural-Urban Migration
Several studies found that the composition of Mexico’s agricultural supply did
not change significantly after NAFTA, although there were shifts in production as the
agricultural sector adjusted to trade liberalization. One study found that some
commercial farmers shifted production from staple crops to crops for export purposes
and that yields of basic crops increased after NAFTA, but only for those crops grown
under irrigated conditions.44 The study states that Mexico’s productivity of irrigated
lands increased after NAFTA, but non-export, non-irrigated agriculture did not
increase. The study also cited a disparity in agricultural productivity between the
northern and southern states due to the poor transportation and irrigation networks
in the central and southern states of Mexico, making transportation costs very
expensive. Another reason is access to credit. Those with small farms in the rural
areas have difficulties finding access to credit. Without government guarantees,
Mexican commercial banks often hesitate to provide loans because of the historically
high default rate on agricultural loans. To help address this problem, the Mexican
government created Financiera Rural in 2002, which helps provide access to
microcredits for farmers to buy machinery, equipment, and technology.45
The effect of NAFTA on rural-urban migration within Mexico or on migration
from Mexico to the United States is difficult to quantify because of the various
factors affecting migration. Mexican migration after NAFTA was affected by a
combination of higher efficiency in Mexican agricultural productivity, sectoral
adjustments to trade as some sectors experienced higher growth than others, urban
growth in Mexico, and demands for unskilled labor in the United States. A study by
the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace discusses the experience of Mexico
since the enactment of NAFTA. The study’s analysis focuses on people, the
communities they live in, and the choices they make in response to their social and
economic environment. The study states that NAFTA accelerated the transition of
Mexico to a liberalized economy but did not create the necessary conditions for the
public and private sectors to respond to the economic, social, and environmental
effects of increased trade with its NAFTA partners. One of the study’s conclusion
is that NAFTA’s agricultural policies did not benefit subsistence farmers, while
providing larger commercial farmers with substantial support.46
On the issue of Mexico’s demographic patterns, one study found that NAFTA
has had a minor role in Mexico’s rural-urban migration. The study argues that the
observed trend of migration from rural areas of Mexico to urban centers is directly
the result of agricultural liberalization. However, the study also notes that these
migration patterns have been in place since 1960.47 Therefore, it is not clear how
much of a role NAFTA has had in Mexico’s rural-urban migration. While some


44 Yuñez and Naude, p. 166.
45 See [http://www.financierarural.gob.mx].
46 Audley, John J., Demetrios G. Papademetriou, Sandra Polaski, Scott Vaughan, Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace, NAFTA’s Promise and Reality: Lessons from Mexico
for the Hemisphere, 2004.
47 Ibid.

observers believe that the trend of migration from rural areas of Mexico to urban
centers is directly a result of NAFTA, many economists argue that rural-urban
migration trends are common in the industrialization process of most countries. For
this reason, some argue that the high concentration of poverty in rural areas makes
it very important for Mexican policymakers to understand the nature of Mexico’s
farming structure when proposing development policies.48
Mexican Programs for Farmers
Anticipating the possible effects of NAFTA on farmers, the Mexican
government established the Program of Direct Support for the Countryside,
Programa de Apoyos Directos Para el Campo (PROCAMPO), in 1993.
PROCAMPO provided income support to farmers over a 15-year transitional period
through hectare-based direct payments to producers. However, budget austerity
caused by Mexico’s 1995 peso crisis resulted in budget cuts for the program. Another
Mexican program, Alianza para el Campo, or Alianza, was created in 1995 to
improve agricultural productivity with modern equipment and technology. A third
program, Produce Capitaliza, provides infrastructure and extension-type assistance
and support to livestock producers for upgrading pastures. While these three
programs have provided support for Mexican farmers, there continues to be a huge
disparity in subsidy levels between the United States and Mexico.49 One study
suggested that if the United States continued to subsidize corn production in the
United States, Mexico should be permitted to impose some form of safeguard
measures to protect farmers.50
Views of NAFTA in Mexico
Views of NAFTA within Mexico are mixed. Media reports tend to highlight the
anti-NAFTA sentiment in the Mexican agricultural sector, but according to an
extensive non-partisan opinion survey conducted by two independent groups in
Mexico, the majority of the Mexican population views NAFTA favorably. A public
opinion survey conducted in 2006 showed that the majority of the Mexican
population favors trade liberalization with the United States and Canada. The survey,
conducted by the Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas (CIDE) and the
Consejo Mexicano de Asuntos Internacionales (Mexican Council on Foreign
Relations, COMEXI)51, also showed that Mexicans have a very positive view of
globalization, though there is some division on whether NAFTA should be


48 Yuñez and Naude, p. 176.
49 Hufbauer and Schott, pp. 295-296.
50 Ibid, pp. 343-344.
51 The Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas (CIDE) is an academic non-
government organization dedicated to research and education in Mexico. The Consejo
Mexicano de Asuntos Internacionales (Mexican Council on Foreign Relations, COMEXI)
is an independent, non-government organization in Mexico financed by membership dues
and corporate support; members have a broad spectrum of professional experience from all
over the world.

renegotiated and whether Mexico should continue forming new trade agreements
with other countries.52
The survey examined the views of the general public and another group of
individuals, labeled as “leaders” in the study, which comprises 259 representatives
from five sectors (government, politics, business, media and academic, and non-
government organizations) with an interest in international affairs or professional ties
with other countries. Both groups ranked export promotion among Mexico’s two
most important foreign-policy objectives and hold a largely favorable opinion of
international trade. The poll showed that both the general public and the “leaders”
considered international trade to be beneficial for the country’s economy, job
creation, Mexican businesses, poverty reduction, and their own living conditions.
Ninety-six percent of the “leaders” and 79% of the general public favored increasing
international trade (see Figure 4).53
The most vocal opponents of NAFTA in Mexico have criticized the agreement
because of its negative effect on Mexico’s agricultural sector. Labor and farmers’
coalitions joined forces in early 2008 to protest the final tariff eliminations under
NAFTA on corn. Tens of thousands marched on the streets of Mexico City in
February 2008 to protest the agreement. Many of these were farmers or peasants
with farm plots of less than 12 acres and criticized the Mexican government for not
doing enough to help them adjust to increased competition from the United States.
They stated that most of the government aid to help farmers has gone to large
agricultural businesses in northern states. Groups representing the small farmers
argue that, in the long run, small farmers in Mexico will not be able to compete with
the “Americans’ heavily subsidized and mechanized farms.”54


52 Mexico and the World 2006 - Leaders, public opinion and foreign policy in Mexico, the
United States, and Asia: A Comparative Study, CIDE and COMEXI, 2006.
53 Ibid, pp. 20-21.
54 International Herald Tribune, “Mexican Farmers Protest End of Corn-Import Taxes,” by
James C. McKinley Jr., February 1, 2008.

Figure 4. Mexican Public Opinion of Trade Liberalization


10 0%
80 %
60 %
40 %
20 %
0
Leaders in FavorLeaders OpposedPublic in FavorPublic Opposed
Economic Integration with Canada and U.S.
G loba liz at ion
International Trade
FDI
Renegotiating NAFTA
No More Trade Agreements
Source: Mexico and the World 2006 - Leaders, public opinion and foreign policy in Mexico, the
United States, and Asia: A Comparative Study, CIDE and COMEXI, 2006.
Discussion
Mexico’s economic relationship with the United States is of mutual importance
to both Mexico and the United States. As NAFTA approaches its fifteenth
anniversary, policymakers in the United States and Mexico have mentioned the
possibility of revisiting NAFTA. Economic studies on NAFTA’s effects on Mexico
and the Mexican views of NAFTA could provide a valuable perspective when
evaluating the possibility of reopening parts of the agreement or alternative policy
options. Some observers have suggested that one of the lessons from NAFTA for
developing countries is that they negotiate trade agreements in a way that would be
more beneficial to them. This could take place by including provisions such as
financial assistance from trading partners or new minimum wage requirements.55
Possible areas of consideration for U.S. and Mexican policymakers may include
furthering economic integration between Mexico and the United States; enhancing
55 Audley, John J., Demetrios G. Papademetriou, Sandra Polaski, Scott Vaughan, Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace, NAFTA’s Promise and Reality: Lessons from Mexico
for the Hemisphere, 2004.

or strengthening institutions created under NAFTA side agreements; or taking other
measures to help resolve the issues related to income disparity between Mexico and
the United States.
Some proponents of economic integration in North America have maintained
that the emergence of China and India in the global marketplace may be putting
North America at a competitive disadvantage with other countries and that NAFTA
should go beyond a free trade agreement. Some observers have written policy papers
proposing that the U.S. government consider the possibility of forming a customs
union or common market.56 However, critics of this level of economic integration
believe that NAFTA has already gone too far and that it has harmed the U.S. and
Mexican economies and undermined democratic control of domestic policy-
making.57 If the United States were to potentially consider the further economic
integration in North America, it would require cooperation by the governments of
Mexico and Canada, and approval by the U.S. Congress. Expanding NAFTA to a
customs union or common market would likely be very controversial.
A possible option to address Mexico’s income disparities with the United States
is to consider expanding the mandate of the North American Development Bank
(NADBank). NADBank and its sister institution, the Border Environment
Cooperation Commission (BECC), were created under a bilateral side agreement to
NAFTA called the Border Environmental Cooperation Agreement (BECA). The
objective of NADBank and BECC is to help U.S.-Mexico border communities plan
and finance environmental infrastructure projects. A number of Members of the U.S.
Congress and elected officials from Mexico have discussed the possibility of
expanding the mission of the NADBank to go beyond environmental and border
issues. Some policymakers have proposed expanding NADBank projects to include
transportation and other types of infrastructure projects. Others have suggested
expanding eligible projects to the entire region of Mexico. An option that was
mentioned at the June 2008 U.S.-Mexico Inter-parliamentary Group meeting in
Mexico is for policymakers in the United States and Mexico is to consider creating
an infrastructure fund that would be managed by NADBank to provide investment
in infrastructure, communications, or education.
Another possible option for U.S. policymakers is to consider increased
cooperation with Mexico in its efforts to address the continuing problem of poverty
and the difficulties being faced by farmers in the southern Mexican states. The
Mexican government has taken a number of measures to lessen the impact of
NAFTA on farmers and to address on-going poverty issues, but the results of these
programs has been mixed. Although the programs are not NAFTA-related, they do
benefit segments of the population and regions of Mexico that have benefitted little
from trade liberalization.


56 U.S. Council of the Mexico-U.S. Business Committee, Council of the Americas, A
Compact for North American Competitiveness, April 2005; Grubel, Herbert G., The Fraser
Institute, The Case for the Amero: The Economics and Politics of a North American
Monetary Union, September 1999.
57 Public Citizen, Global Trade Watch, North American Free Trade Agreement, see
[http://www.citizen.org] .

Appendix. Map of Mexico
Figure 5. Map of Mexico